ዘመኑ ባፈራው የቴክኖሎጂ ግብአት በመጠቀም ለህብረተሰባችን ስራ ለሁሉም በሚል ግብ የተሻለ የስራ አማራጭ፣ ለተሻለ ኑሮ፣ ለተሻለ የገበያ ትስስር ፣ ለተቀናጀ የገበያ ተደራሽነት ገዥን ከደንበኛ የማስተሳሰሪያ የቴክኖሎጂ አማራጭ ይዘን መተናል በሁሉም የስራ መስክ በሁሉም የስራ እርከን ስራ ለሚገኙ ባለሙያዎች እና ድርጅቶች የስራ አጋጣሚን መፍጠር
ዘመኑ ባፈራው የቴክኖሎጂ ግብአት በመጠቀም ለህብረተሰባችን ስራ ለሁሉም በሚል ግብ የተሻለ የስራ አማራጭ፣ ለተሻለ ኑሮ፣ ለተሻለ የገበያ ትስስር ፣ ለተቀናጀ የገበያ ተደራሽነት ገዥን ከደንበኛ የማስተሳሰሪያ የቴክኖሎጂ አማራጭ ይዘን መተናል በሁሉም የስራ መስክ በሁሉም የስራ እርከን ስራ ለሚገኙ ባለሙያዎች እና ድርጅቶች የስራ አጋጣሚን መፍጠር
ዘመኑ ባፈራው የቴክኖሎጂ ግብአት በመጠቀም ለህብረተሰባችን ስራ ለሁሉም በሚል ግብ የተሻለ የስራ አማራጭ፣ ለተሻለ ኑሮ፣ ለተሻለ የገበያ ትስስር ፣ ለተቀናጀ የገበያ ተደራሽነት ገዥን ከደንበኛ የማስተሳሰሪያ የቴክኖሎጂ አማራጭ ይዘን መተናል በሁሉም የስራ መስክ በሁሉም የስራ እርከን ስራ ለሚገኙ ባለሙያዎች እና ድርጅቶች የስራ አጋጣሚን መፍጠር
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ዘመኑ ባፈራው የቴክኖሎጂ ግብአት በመጠቀም ለህብረተሰባችን ስራ ለሁሉም በሚል ግብ የተሻለ የስራ አማራጭ፣ ለተሻለ ኑሮ፣ ለተሻለ የገበያ ትስስር ፣ ለተቀናጀ የገበያ ተደራሽነት ገዥን ከደንበኛ የማስተሳሰሪያ የቴክኖሎጂ አማራጭ ይዘን መተናል በሁሉም የስራ መስክ በሁሉም የስራ እርከን ስራ ለሚገኙ ባለሙያዎች እና ድርጅቶች የስራ አጋጣሚን መፍጠር
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Whenever a Still is named, or an article is said to be distilled or "drawn," it must be understood to be done so by steam apparatus, as this is the only mode which can be adopted for obtaining anything like a delicate odor; the old plan of having the fire immediately under the still, conveying an empyreumatic or burnt smell to the result, has become obsolete in every well-regulated perfumatory.
The steam-still differs from the one described only in the lower part, or pan, which is made double, so as to allow steam from a boiler to circulate round the pan for the purpose of boiling the contents, instead of the direct fire. In macerating, the heat is applied in the same way, or by a contrivance like the common glue-pot, as made use of nowadays.
This description of apparatus will be found very useful for experiments which we will suggest by-and-by.
The perfumes for the handkerchief, as found in the shops of Paris and London, are either simple or compound; the former are called extracts, extraits, esprits, or essences, and the latter bouquets and nosegays, which are mixtures of the extracts so compounded in quantity that no one flower or odor can be discovered as predominating over another; and when made of the delicate-scented flowers carefully blended, they produce an exquisite sensation on the olfactory nerve, and are therefore much prized by all who can afford to purchase them.
We shall first explain the mode for obtaining the simple extracts of flowers. This will be followed by the process for preparing ambergris, musk, and civet, substances, which, though of animal origin, are of the utmost importance as forming a large part in the most approved bouquets; and we shall conclude this department of the art with recipes for all the fashionable bouquets and nosegays, the value of which, we doubt not, will be estimated according to the labor bestowed upon their analysis.
In order to render the work more easy of consultation, we have adopted the alphabetical arrangement in preference to a more scientific classification.
Among the collection of ottos of the East India Company at the Exhibition of 1851, were several hitherto unknown in this country, and possessing much interest.
It is to be regretted, that no person having any practical knowledge of perfumery was placed on the jury of Class IV or XXIX. Had such been the case, the desires of the exhibitors would probably have been realized, and European perfumers benefited by the introduction of new odors from the East. Some of the ottos sent by a native perfumer of Benares were deemed worthy of honorable mention. Such as Chumeylee, Beyla, Begla, Moteya, and many others from the Moluccas, but without any information respecting them.
We are not going to speak of, perhaps, more than a tithe of the plants that have a perfume—only those will be mentioned that are used by the operative perfumer, and such as are imitated by him in consequence of there being a demand for the article, which circumstances prevent him from obtaining in its genuine state. The first that comes under our notice is—
Allspice.—The odoriferous principle of allspice, commonly called pimento, is obtained by distilling the dried fruit, before it is quite ripe, of the Eugenia pimenta and Myrtus pimenta with water. It is thus procured as an essential oil; it is but little used in perfumery, and when so, only in combination with other spice oils; for scenting soap it is, however, very agreeable, and much resembles the smell of cloves, and deserves more attention than it has hitherto received. Mixed in the proportion of two ounces of oil of allspice with one gallon of rectified spirit of wine, it forms what may be termed extract of allspice, which extract will be found very useful in the manufacture of low-priced bouquets.
Almonds.
"Mark well the flow'ring almonds in the wood; If od'rous blooms the bearing branches load, The glebe will answer to the sylvan reign, Great heats will follow, and large crops of grain."
Virgil.
This perfume has been much esteemed for many ages. It may be procured by distilling the leaves of any of the laurel tribe, and the kernels of stone fruit; for trade purposes, it is obtained from the bitter almonds, and exists in the skin or pellicle that covers the seed after it is shelled. In the ordinary way, the almonds are put into the press for the purpose of obtaining the mild or fat oil from the nut; the cake which is left after this process is then mixed with salt and water, and allowed to remain together for about twenty-four hours prior to distillation. The reason for moistening the cake is well understood to the practical chemist, and although we are not treating the subject of perfumery in a chemical sense, but only in a practical way, it may not be inappropriate here to observe, that the essential oil of almonds does not exist ready formed to any extent in the nut, but that it is produced by a species of fermentation, from the amygdalin and emulsine contained in the almonds, together with the water that is added. Analogous substances exist in laurel leaves, and hence the same course is to be pursued when they are distilled. Some manufacturers put the moistened cake into a bag of coarse cloth, or spread it upon a sieve, and then force the stream through it; in either case, the essential oil of the almond rises with the watery vapor, and is condensed in the still-worm. In this concentrated form, the odor of almonds is far from agreeable; but when diluted with spirit, in the proportion of about one and a half ounce of the oil to a gallon of spirit or alcohol, it is very pleasant.
Almond. Almond.
The essential oil of almonds, enters into combination with soap, cold cream, and many other materials prepared by the perfumer; for which see their respective titles.
Fourteen pounds of the cake yield about one ounce of essential oil.
In experiments with this substance, it must be carefully remembered that it is exceedingly poisonous, and, therefore, great caution is necessary in its admixture with substances used as a cosmetic, otherwise dangerous results may ensue.
Artificial Otto of Almonds.—Five or six years ago, Mr. Mansfield, of Weybridge, took out a patent for the manufacture of otto of almonds from benzole. (Benzole is obtained from tar oil.) His apparatus, according to the Report of the juries of the 1851 Exhibition, consists of a large glass tube in the form of a coil, which at the upper end divides into two tubes; each of which is provided with a funnel. A stream of nitric acid flows slowly into one of the funnels, and benzole into the other. The two substances meet at the point of union of the tubes, and a combination ensues with the evolution of heat. As the newly formed compound flows down through the coil it becomes cool, and is collected at the lower extremity; it then requires to be washed with water, and lastly with a dilute solution of carbonate of soda, to render it fit for use. Nitro-benzole, which is the chemical name for this artificial otto of almonds, has a different odor to the true otto of almonds, but it can nevertheless be used for perfuming soap. Mr. Mansfield writes to me under date of January 3d, 1855:—"In 1851, Messrs. Gosnell, of Three King Court, began to make this perfume under my license; latterly I withdrew the license from them by their consent, and since then it is not made that I am aware of." It is, however, quite common in Paris.
Anise.—The odorous principle is procured by distilling the seeds of the plant Pimpinella anisum; the product is the oil of aniseed of commerce. As it congeals at a temperature of about 50° Fahr., it is frequently adulterated with a little spermaceti, to give a certain solidity to it, whereby other cheaper essential oils can be added to it with less chance of detection. As the oil of aniseed is quite soluble in spirit, and the spermaceti insoluble, the fraud is easily detected.
This perfume is exceedingly strong, and is, therefore, well adapted for mixing with soap and for scenting pomatums, but does not do nicely in compounds for handkerchief use.
Balm, oil of Balm, called also oil of Melissa, is obtained by distilling the leaves of the Melissa officinalis with water; it comes from the still tap with the condensed steam or water, from which it is separated with the tap funnel. But it is very little used in perfumery, if we except its combination in Aqua di Argento.
Balsam.—Under this title there are two or three substances used in perfumery, such as balsam of Peru, balsam of Tolu, and balsam of storax (also called liquid amber). The first-named, is procured from the Myroxylon peruiferum; it exudes from the tree when wounded, and is also obtained by boiling down the bark and branches in water. The latter is the most common method for procuring it. It has a strong odor, like benzoin.
Balsam of Tolu flows from the Toluifera balsammum. It resembles common resin (rosin); with the least warmth, however, it runs to a liquid, like brown treacle. The smell of it is particularly agreeable, and being soluble in alcohol makes a good basis for a bouquet, giving in this respect a permanence of odor to a perfume which the simple solution of an oil would not possess. For this purpose all these balsams are very useful, though not so much used as they might be.
"Ulex has found that balsam of Tolu is frequently adulterated with common resin. To detect this adulteration he pours sulphuric acid on the balsam, and heats the mixture, when the balsam dissolves to a cherry-red fluid, without evolving sulphurous acid, but with the escape of benzoic or cinnamic acid, if no common resin is present. On the contrary, the balsam foams, blackens, and much sulphurous acid is set free, if it is adulterated with common resin."—Archives der Pharmacie.
Balsam of storax, commonly called gum styrax, is obtained in the same manner, and possessing similar properties, with a slight variation of odor, is applicable in the same manner as the above.
They are all imported from South America, Chili, and Mexico, where the trees that produce them are indigenous.
Bay, oil of sweet Bay, also termed essential oil of laurel-berries, is a very fragrant substance, procured by distillation from the berries of the bay laurel. Though very pleasant, it is not much used.
Bergamot.—This most useful perfume is procured from the Citrus Bergamia, by expression from the peel of the fruit. It has a soft sweet odor, too well known to need description here. When new and good it has a greenish-yellow tint, but loses its greenness by age, especially if kept in imperfectly corked bottles. It then becomes cloudy from the deposit of resinous matter, produced by the contact of the air, and acquires a turpentine smell.
It is best preserved in well-stoppered bottles, kept in a cool cellar, and in the dark; light, especially the direct sunshine, quickly deteriorates its odor. This observation may be applied, indeed, to all perfumes, except rose, which is not so spoiled.
When bergamot is mixed with other essential oils it greatly adds to their richness, and gives a sweetness to spice oils attainable by no other means, and such compounds are much used in the most highly scented soaps. Mixed with rectified spirit in the proportions of about four ounces of bergamot to a gallon, it forms what is called "extract of bergamot," and in this state is used for the handkerchief. Though well covered with extract of orris and other matters, it is the leading ingredient in Bayley and Blew's Ess. Bouquet (see Bouquets).
Styrax Benzoin. Styrax Benzoin.
Benzoin, also called Benjamin.—This is a very useful substance to perfumers. It exudes from the Styrax benzoin by wounding the tree, and drying, becomes a hard gum-resin. It is principally imported from Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and Siam. The best kind comes from the latter place, and used to be called Amygdaloides, because of its being interspersed with several white spots, which resemble broken almonds. When heated, these white specks rise as a smoke, which is easily condensed upon paper. The material thus separated from the benzoin is called flowers of benzoin in commerce, and by chemists is termed benzoic acid. It has all, or nearly all, the odor of the resin from which it is derived.
The extract, or tincture of benzoin, forms a good basis for a bouquet.[B] Like balsam of Tolu, it gives permanence and body to a perfume made with an essential oil in spirit.
The principal consumption of benzoin is in the manufacture of pastilles (see Pastilles), and for the preparation of fictitious vanilla pomade (see Pomatums).
Caraway.—This odoriferous principle is drawn by distillation from the seeds of the Carum carui. It has a very pleasant smell, quite familiar enough without description. It is well adapted to perfume soap, for which it is much used in England, though rarely if ever on the continent; when dissolved in spirit it may be used in combination with oil of lavender and bergamot for the manufacture of cheap essences, in a similar way to cloves (see Cloves). If caraway seeds are ground, they are well adapted for mixing to form sachet powder (see Sachets).
Cascarilla.—The bark is used in the formation of pastilles, and also enters into the composition known as Eau à Bruler, for perfuming apartments, to which we refer.
The bark alone of this plant is used by the manufacturing perfumer, and that only in the fabrication of pastilles. The Cascarilla gratissimus is however so fragrant, that according to Burnett its leaves are gathered by the Koras of the Cape of Good Hope as a perfume, and both the C. fragrans and C. fragilis are odoriferous. It behooves perfumers, therefore, who are on the look out for novelties, to obtain these leaves and ascertain the result of their distillation.
Messrs. Herring and Co., some years ago, drew the oil of cascarilla, but it was only offered to the trade as a curiosity.
Cassia.—The essential oil of cassia is procured by distilling the outer bark of the Cinnamomum cassia. 1 cwt. of bark yields rather more than three quarters of a pound of oil; it has a pale yellow color; in smell it much resembles cinnamon, although very inferior to it. It is principally used for perfuming soap, especially what is called "military soap," as it is more aromatic or spicy than flowery in odor; it therefore finds no place for handkerchief use.
Cassie.—
"The short narcissus and fair daffodil, Pansies to please the sight, and cassie sweet to swell."
Dryden's Virgil.
This is one of those fine odors which enters into the composition of the best handkerchief bouquets.
Flower-buds of the Acacia Farnesiana. Flower-buds of the Acacia Farnesiana.
When smelled at alone, it has an intense violet odor, and is rather sickly sweet.
It is procured by maceration from the Acacia farnesiana. The purified fat is melted, into which the flowers are thrown and left to digest for several hours; the spent flowers are removed, and fresh are added, eight or ten times, until sufficient richness of perfume is obtained. As many flowers are used as the grease will cover, when they are put into it, in a liquid state.
After being strained, and the pomade has been kept at a heat sufficient only to retain its liquidity, all impurities will subside by standing for a few days. Finally cooled, it is the cassie pomade of commerce. The Huile de Cassie, or fat oil of cassie, is prepared in a similar manner, substituting the oil of Egyptian ben nut, olive oil, or almond oil, in place of suet. Both these preparations are obviously only a solution of the true essential oil of cassie flowers in the neutral fatty body. Europe may shortly be expecting to import a similar scented pomade from South Australia, derived from the Wattle, a plant that belongs to the same genus as the A. farnesiana, and which grows most luxuriantly in Australia. Mutton fat being cheap, and the wattle plentiful, a profitable trade may be anticipated in curing the flowers, &c.
To prepare the extract of cassie, take six pounds of No. 24 (best quality) cassie pomade, and place upon it one gallon of the best rectified spirit, as sent out by Bowerbank, of Bishopsgate. After it has digested for three weeks or a month, at a summer heat, it is fit to draw from the pomatum, and, if good, has a beautiful green color and rich flowery smell of the cassie blossom. All extracts made by this process—maceration, or, as it may be called, cold infusion, give a more natural smell of the flowers to the result, than by merely dissolving the essential oil (procured by distillation) in the spirit; moreover, where the odor of the flower exists in only very minute quantities, as in the present instance, and with violet, jasmine, &c., it is the only practical mode of proceeding.
In this, and all other similar cases, the pomatum must be cut up into very small pieces, after the domestic manner of "chopping suet," prior to its being infused in the alcohol. The action of the mixture is simply a change of place in the odoriferous matter, which leaves the fat body by the superior attraction, or affinity, as the chemists say, of the spirits of wine, in which it freely dissolves.
The major part of the extract can be poured or drawn off the pomatum without trouble, but it still retains a portion in the interstices, which requires time to drain away, and this must be assisted by placing the pomatum in a large funnel, supported by a bottle, in order to collect the remainder. Finally, all the pomatum, which is now called washed pomatum, is to be put into a tin, which tin must be set into hot water, for the purpose of melting its contents; when the pomatum thus becomes liquefied, any extract that is still in it rises to the surface, and can be skimmed off, or when the pomatum becomes cold it can be poured from it.
The washed pomatum is preserved for use in the manufacture of dressing for the hair, for which purpose it is exceedingly well adapted, on account of the purity of the grease from which it was originally prepared, but more particularly on account of a certain portion of odor which it still retains; and were it not used up in this way, it would be advisable to put it for a second infusion in spirit, and thus a weaker extract could be made serviceable for lower priced articles.
I cannot leave cassie without recommending it more especially to the notice of perfumers and druggists, as an article well adapted for the purpose of the manufacture of essences for the handkerchief and pomades for the hair. When diluted with other odors, it imparts to the whole such a true flowery fragrance, that it is the admiration of all who smell it, and has not a little contributed to the great sale which certain proprietary articles have attained.
We caution the inexperienced not to confound cassie with cassia, which has a totally different odor. See Acacia Pomade.
Cedar Wood now and then finds a place in a perfumer's warehouse; when ground, it does well to form a body for sachet powder. Slips of cedar wood are sold as matches for lighting lamps, because while burning an agreeable odor is evolved; some people use it also, in this condition, distributed among clothes in drawers to "prevent moth." On distillation it yields an essential oil that is exceedingly fragrant.
Messrs. Rigge and Co., of London, use it extensively for scenting soap.
Lebanon Cedar Wood. (For the Handkerchief.)
Otto of cedar, 1 oz.
Rectified spirit, 1 pint.
Esprit rose trip, 1/4 pint.
The tincture smells agreeably of the wood, from which it can readily be made. Its crimson color, however, prohibits it from being used for the handkerchief. It forms an excellent tincture for the teeth, and is the basis of the celebrated French dentifrice "eau Botot."
Cedrat.—This perfume is procured from the rind of the citron fruit (Citrus medica), both by distillation and expression; it has a very beautiful lemony odor, and is much admired. It is principally used in the manufacture of essences for the handkerchief, being too expensive for perfuming grease or soap. What is called extract of cedrat is made by dissolving two ounces of the above essential oil of citron in one pint of spirits, to which some perfumers add half an ounce of bergamot.
Cinnamon.—Several species of the plant Laurus cinnamomum yield the cinnamon and cassia of commerce. Its name is said to be derived from China Amomum, the bark being one of the most valued spices of the East. Perfumers use both the bark and the oil, which is obtained by distillation from it. The ground bark enters into the composition of some pastilles, tooth powders, and sachets. The essential oil of cinnamon is principally brought to this country from Ceylon; it is exceedingly powerful, and must be used sparingly. In such compounds as cloves answer, so will cinnamon.
Citron.—On distilling the flowers of the Citrus medica, a very fragrant oil is procured, which is a species of neroli, and is principally consumed by the manufacturers of eau de Cologne.
Citronella.—Under this name there is an oil in the market, chiefly derived from Ceylon and the East Indies; its true origin we are unable to decide; in odor it somewhat resembles citron fruit, but is very inferior. Probably it is procured from one of the grasses of the Andropogon genus. Being cheap, it is extensively used for perfuming soap. What is now extensively sold as "honey" soap, is a fine yellow soap slightly perfumed with this oil. Some few use it for scenting grease, but it is not much admired in that way.
Cloves.—Every part of the clove plant (Caryophyllus aromaticus) abounds with aromatic oil, but it is most fragrant and plentiful in the unexpanded flower-bud, which are the cloves of commerce. Cloves have been brought into the European market for more than 2000 years. The plant is a native of the Moluccas and other islands in the China seas. "The average annual crop of cloves," says Burnett, "is, from each tree, 2 or 2-1/2 lbs., but a fine tree has been known to yield 125 lbs. of this spice in a single season, and as 5000 cloves only weigh one pound, there must have been at least 625,000 flowers upon this single tree."
Clove. Clove.
The oil of cloves may be obtained by expression from the fresh flower-buds, but the usual method of procuring it is by distillation, which is carried on to a very great extent in this country. Few essential oils have a more extensive use in perfumery than that of cloves; it combines well with grease, soap, and spirit, and, as will be seen in the recipes for the various bouquets given hereafter, it forms a leading feature in some of the most popular handkerchief essences, Rondeletia, the Guard's Bouquet, &c., and will be found where least expected. For essence of cloves, dissolve oil of cloves in the proportion of two ounces of oil to one gallon of spirit.
Dill.—Perfumers are now and then asked for "dill water;" it is, however, more a druggist's article than a perfumer's, as it is more used for its medicinal qualities than for its odor, which by the way, is rather pleasant than otherwise. Some ladies use a mixture of half dill water and half rose water, as a simple cosmetic, "to clear the complexion."
The oil of dill is procured by submitting the crushed fruit of dill (Anethum graveolens) with water to distillation. The oil floats on the surface of the distillate, from which it is separated by the funnel in the usual manner; after the separation of the oil, the "water" is fit for sale. Oil of dill may be used with advantage, if in small proportions, and mixed with other oils, for perfuming soap.
Eglantine, or Sweet Briar, notwithstanding what the poet Robert Noyes says—
"In fragrance yields, Surpassing citron groves or spicy fields,"
does not find a place in the perfumer's "scent-room" except in name. This, like many other sweet-scented plants, does not repay the labor of collecting its odor. The fragrant part of this plant is destroyed more or less under every treatment that it is put to, and hence it is discarded. As, however, the article is in demand by the public, a species of fraud is practised upon them, by imitating it thus:—
Imitation Eglantine, or Essence of Sweet Briar.
Spirituous extract of French rose pomatum, 1 pint.
" " cassie, 1/4 "
" " fleur d'orange, 1/4 "
Esprit de rose, 1/4 "
Oil of neroli, 1/2 drachm.
Oil of lemon grass (verbena oil), 1/2 "
Elder (Sambucus nigra).—The only preparation of this plant for its odorous quality used by the perfumer, is elder-flower water. To prepare it, take nine pounds of elder-flowers, free from stalk, and introduce it to the still with four gallons of water; the first three gallons that come over is all that need be preserved for use; one ounce of rectified spirit should be added to each gallon of "water" distilled, and when bottled it is ready for sale. Other preparations of elder flowers are made, such as milk of elder, extract of elder, &c., which will be found in their proper place under Cosmetics. Two or three new materials made from this flower will also be given hereafter, which are likely to meet with a very large sale on account of the reputed cooling qualities of the ingredients; of these we would call attention more particularly to cold cream of elder-flowers, and to elder oil for the hair.
The preparations of elder-flowers, if made according to the Pharmacopœias, are perfectly useless, as the forms therein given show an utter want of knowledge of the properties of the materials employed.
Fennel (Fœniculum vulgare).—Dried fennel herb, when ground, enters into the composition of some sachet powders. The oil of fennel, in conjunction with other aromatic oils, may be used for perfuming soap. It is procurable by distillation.
Flag (Sweet) (Acorus calamus).—The roots, or rhizome, of the sweet flag, yield by distillation a pleasant-smelling oil; 1 cwt. of the rhizome will thus yield one pound of oil. It can be used according to the pleasure of the manufacturer in scenting grease, soap, or for extracts, but requires other sweet oils with it to hide its origin.
Geranium (Pelargonium odoratissimum, rose-leaf geranium).—The leaves of this plant yield by distillation a very agreeable rosy-smelling oil, so much resembling real otto of rose, that it is used very extensively for the adulteration of that valuable oil, and is grown very largely for that express purpose. It is principally cultivated in the south of France, and in Turkey (by the rose-growers). In the department of Seine-et-Oise, at Montfort-Lamaury, in France, hundreds of acres of it may be seen growing. 1 cwt. of leaves will yield about two ounces of essential oil. Used to adulterate otto of rose, it is in its turn itself adulterated with ginger grass oil (Andropogon), and thus formerly was very difficult to procure genuine; on account of the increased cultivation of the plant, it is now, however, easily procured pure. Some samples are greenish-colored, others nearly white, but we prefer that of a brownish tint.
When dissolved in rectified spirit, in the proportion of about six ounces to the gallon, it forms the "extract of rose-leaf geranium" of the shops. A word or two is necessary about the oil of geranium, as much confusion is created respecting it, in consequence of there being an oil under the name of geranium, but which in reality is derived from the Andropogon nardus, cultivated in the Moluccas. This said andropogon (geranium!) oil can be used to adulterate the true geranium, and hence we suppose its nomenclature in the drug markets. The genuine rose-leaf geranium oil fetches about 6s. per ounce, while the andropogon oil is not worth more than that sum per pound. And we may observe here, that the perfuming essential oils are best purchased through the wholesale perfumers, as from the nature of their trade they have a better knowledge and means of obtaining the real article than the drug-broker. On account of the pleasing odor of the true oil of rose-leaf geranium, it is a valuable article for perfuming many materials, and appears to give the public great satisfaction.
Heliotrope.—Either by maceration or enfleurage with clarified fat, we may obtain this fine odor from the flowers of the Heliotrope Peruvianum or H. grandiflorum. Exquisite as the odor of this plant is, at present it is not applied to use by the manufacturing perfumer. This we think rather a singular fact, especially as the perfume is powerful and the flowers abundant. We should like to hear of some experiments being tried with this plant for procuring its odor in this country, and for that purpose now suggest the mode of operation which would most likely lead to successful results. For a small trial in the first instance, which can be managed by any person having the run of a garden, we will say, procure an ordinary glue-pot now in common use, which melts the material by the boiling of water; it is in fact a water-bath, in chemical parlance—one capable of holding a pound or more of melted fat. At the season when the flowers are in bloom, obtain half a pound of fine mutton suet, melt the suet and strain it through a close hair-sieve, allow the liquefied fat, as it falls from the sieve, to drop into cold spring water; this operation granulates and washes the blood and membrane from it. In order to start with a perfectly inodorous grease, the melting and granulation process may be repeated three or four times; finally, remelt the fat and cast it into a pan to free it from adhering water.
Now put the clarified suet into the macerating pot, and place it in such a position near the fire of the greenhouse, or elsewhere that will keep it warm enough to be liquid; into the fat throw as many flowers as you can, and there let them remain for twenty-four hours; at this time strain the fat from the spent flowers and add fresh ones; repeat this operation for a week: we expect at the last straining the fat will have become very highly perfumed, and when cold may be justly termed Pomade à la Heliotrope.
The cold pomade being chopped up, like suet for a pudding, is now to be put into a wide-mouthed bottle, and covered with spirits as highly rectified as can be obtained, and left to digest for a week or more; the spirit then strained off will be highly perfumed; in reality it will be extract of Heliotrope, a delightful perfume for the handkerchief. The rationale of the operation is simple enough: the fat body has a strong affinity or attraction for the odorous body, or essential oil of the flowers, and it therefore absorbs it by contact, and becomes itself perfumed. In the second operation, the spirit has a much greater attraction for the fragrant principle than the fatty matter; the former, therefore, becomes perfumed at the expense of the latter. The same experiment may be repeated with almond oil substituted for the fat.
The experiment here hinted at, may be varied with any flowers that there are to spare; indeed, by having the macerating bath larger than was mentioned above, an excellent millefleur pomade and essence might be produced from every conservatory in the kingdom, and thus we may receive another enjoyment from the cultivation of flowers beyond their beauty of form and color.
We hope that those of our readers who feel inclined to try experiments of this nature will not be deterred by saying, "they are not worth the trouble." It must be remembered, that very fine essences realize in the London perfumery warehouses 16s. per pint of 16 ounces, and that fine flowery-scented pomades fetch the same sum per pound. If the experiments are successful they should be published, as then we may hope to establish a new and important manufacture in this country. But we are digressing.
The odor of heliotrope resembles a mixture of almonds and vanilla, and is well imitated thus:—
Extract of Heliotrope.
Spirituous extract of vanilla, 1/2 pint.
" " French rose pomatum, 1/4 "
" " orange-flower pomatum, 2 oz.
" " ambergris, 1 oz.
Essential oil of almonds, 5 drops.
A preparation made in this manner under the name of Extract de Heliotrope is that which is sold in the shops of Paris and London, and is really a very nice perfume, passing well with the public for a genuine extract of heliotrope.
Honeysuckle or Woodbine:—
"Copious of flower the woodbine, pale and wan, But well compensating her sickly looks With never-cloying odors."
What the poet Cowper here says is quite true; nevertheless, it is a flower that is not used in practical perfumery, though there is no reason for abandoning it. The experiments suggested for obtaining the odor of Heliotrope and Millefleur (thousand flowers) are also applicable to this, as also to Hawthorn. A good Imitation of Honeysuckle is made thus:—
Spirituous extract of rose pomatum, 1 pint.
" " violet " 1 "
" " tubereuse " 1 "
Extract of vanilla, 1/4 "
" Tolu, 1/4 "
Otto neroli, 10 drops.
" almonds, 5 "
The prime cost of a perfume made in this manner would probably be too high to meet the demand of a retail druggist; in such cases it may be diluted with rectified spirit to the extent "to make it pay," and will yet be a nice perfume. The formula generally given herein for odors is in anticipation that when bottled they will retail for at least eighteen-pence the fluid ounce! which is the average price put on the finest perfumery by the manufacturers of London and Paris.
Hovenia.—A perfume under this name is sold to a limited extent, but if it did not smell better than the plant Hovenia dulcis or H. inequalis, a native of Japan, it would not sell at all. The article in the market is made thus:—
Rectified spirit, 1 quart.
Rose-water, 1/2 pint.
Otto lemons, 1/2 oz.
Otto of rose, 1 drachm.
" cloves, 1/2 "
" neroli, 10 drops.
First dissolve the ottos in the spirit, then add the rose-water. After filtration it is ready for sale. When compounds of this kind do not become bright by passing through blotting-paper, the addition of a little carbonate of magnesia prior to filtering effectually clears them. The water in the above recipe is only added in order that the article produced may be retailed at a moderate price, and would, of course, be better without that "universal friend."
Jasmine.—
"Luxuriant above all, The jasmine throwing wide her elegant sweets."
This flower is one of the most prized by the perfumer. Its odor is delicate and sweet, and so peculiar that it is without comparison, and as such cannot be imitated. When the flowers of the Jasminum odoratissimum are distilled, repeatedly using the water of distillation over fresh flowers, the essential oil of jasmine may be procured. It is, however, exceedingly rare, on account of the enormous cost of production. There was a fine sample of six ounces exhibited in the Tunisian department of the Crystal Palace, the price of which was 9l. the fluid ounce! The plant is the Yasmyn of the Arabs, from which our name is derived.
In the perfumer's laboratory, the method of obtaining the odor is by absorption, or, as the French term it, enfleurage; that is, by spreading a mixture of pure lard and suet on a glass tray, and sticking the fresh-gathered flowers all over it, leaving them to stand a day or so, and repeating the operation with fresh flowers—the grease absorbs the odor. Finally, the pomade is scraped off the glass or slate, melted at as low a temperature as possible, and strained.
Oils strongly impregnated with the fragrance are also prepared much in the same way. Layers of cotton wool, previously steeped in oil of ben (obtained by pressure from the blanched nuts of the Moringa oleifera) are covered with jasmine flowers, which is repeated several times; finally, the cotton or linen cloths which some perfumers use, are squeezed under a press. The jasmine oil thus produced is the Huile antique au jasmin of the French houses.
The "extract of jasmine" is prepared by pouring rectified spirit on the jasmine pomade or oil, and allowing them to remain together for a fortnight at a summer heat. The best quality extract requires two pounds of pomatum to every quart of spirit. The same can be done with the oil of jasmine. If the pomade is used, it must be cut up fine previously to being put into the spirit; if the oil is used, it must be shaken well together every two or more hours, otherwise, on account of its specific gravity, the oil separates, and but little surface is exposed to the spirit. After the extract is strained off, the "washed" pomatum or oil is still useful, if remelted, in the composition of pomatum for the hair, and gives more satisfaction to a customer than any of the "creams and balms," &c. &c., made up and scented with essential oils; the one smells of the flower, the other "a nondescript."
Jasmine. Jasmine.
The extract of jasmine enters into the composition of a great many of the most approved handkerchief perfumes sold by the English and French perfumers. Extract of jasmine is sold for the handkerchief often pure, but is one of those scents which, though very gratifying at first, becomes what people call "sickly" after exposure to the oxidizing influence of the air, but if judiciously mixed with other perfumes of an opposite character is sure to please the most fastidious customer.
Jonquil.—The scent of the jonquil is very beautiful; for perfumery purposes it is however but little cultivated in comparison with jasmine and tubereuse. It is prepared exactly as jasmine. The Parisian perfumers sell a mixture which they call "extract of jonquil." The plant, however, only plays the part of a godfather to the offspring, giving it its name. The so-called jonquil is made thus:—
Spirituous extract of jasmine pomade, 1 pint.
" " tubereuse " 1 "
" " fleur d'orange, 1/2 "
Extract of vanilla, 2 fluid ounces.
Laurel.—By distillation from the berries of the Laurus nobilis, and from the leaves of the Laurus cerasus, an oil and perfumed water are procurable of a very beautiful and fragrant character. Commercially, however, it is disregarded, as from the similarity of odor to the oil distilled from the bitter almond, it is rarely, if ever, used by the perfumer, the latter being more economical.
Lavender.—The climate of England appears to be better adapted for the perfect development of this fine old favorite perfume than any other on the globe. "The ancients," says Burnett, "employed the flowers and the leaves to aromatize their baths, and to give a sweet scent to water in which they washed; hence the generic name of the plant, Lavandula."
Lavender is grown to an enormous extent at Mitcham, in Surrey, which is the seat of its production, in a commercial point of view. Very large quantities are also grown in France, but the fine odor of the British produce realizes in the market four times the price of that of Continental growth. Burnett says that the oil of Lavandula spica is more pleasant than that derived from the other species, but this statement must not mislead the purchaser to buy the French spike lavender, as it is not worth a tenth of that derived from the Lavandulæ veræ. Half-a-hundred weight of good lavender flowers yield, by distillation, from 14 to 16 oz. of essential oil.
All the inferior descriptions of oil of lavender are used for perfuming soaps and greases; but the best, that obtained from the Mitcham lavender, is entirely used in the manufacture of what is called lavender water, but which, more properly, should be called essence or extract of lavender, to be in keeping with the nomenclature of other essences prepared with spirit.
The number of formulæ published for making a liquid perfume of lavender is almost endless, but the whole of them may be resolved into essence of lavender, simple; essence of lavender, compound; and lavender water.
There are two methods of making essence of lavender:—1. By distilling a mixture of essential oil of lavender and rectified spirit; and the other—2. By merely mixing the oil and the spirit together.
The first process yields the finest quality: it is that which is adopted by the firm of Smyth and Nephew, whose reputation for this article is such that it gives a good character in foreign markets, especially India, to all products of lavender of English manufacture. Lavender essence, that which is made by the still, is quite white, while that by mixture only always has a yellowish tint, which by age becomes darker and resinous.
Smyth's Lavender.
To produce a very fine distillate, take—
Otto of English Lavender, 4 oz.
Rectified spirit (60 over proof), 5 pints.
Rose-water, 1 pint.
Mix and distil five pints for sale. Such essence of lavender is expensive, but at 10s. a pint of 14 oz! there is a margin for profit. It not being convenient to the general dealer to sell distilled lavender essence, the following form, by mixture, will produce a first-rate article, and nearly as white as the above.
Essence of Lavender.
Otto of lavender, 3-1/2 oz.
Rectified spirit, 2 quarts.
The perfumer's retail price for such quality is 8s. per pint of 14 oz.
Many perfumers and druggists in making lavender water or essence, use a small portion of bergamot, with an idea of improving its quality—a very erroneous opinion; moreover, such lavender quickly discolors.
Lavender Water.—Take:
English oil of lavender, 4 oz.
Spirit, 3 quarts.
Rose-water, 1 pint.
Filter as above, and it is ready for sale.
Common Lavender Water.—Same form as the above, substituting French lavender for the British.
Recipes for Rondeletia, Lavender Bouquet, and other lavender compounds, will be given when we come to speak of compound perfumes, which will be reserved until we have finished explaining the method of making the simple essences.
Lemon.—This fine perfume is abstracted from the Citrus limonum, by expression, from the rind of the fruit. The otto of lemons in the market is principally from Messina, where there are hundreds of acres of "lemon groves." Otto of lemons, like all the ottos of the Citrus family, is rapidly prone to oxidation when in contact with air and exposure to light; a high temperature is also detrimental, and as such is the case it should be preserved in a cool cellar. Most of the samples from the gas-heated shelves of the druggists' shops, are as much like essence of turpentine, to the smell, as that of lemons; rancid oil of lemons may, in a great measure, be purified by agitation with warm water and final decantation. When new and good, lemon otto may be freely used in combination with rosemary, cloves, and caraway, for perfuming powders for the nursery. From its rapid oxidation, it should not be used for perfuming grease, as it assists rather than otherwise all fats to turn rancid; hence pomatums so perfumed will not keep well. In the manufacture of other compound perfumes, it should be dissolved in spirit, in the proportion of six to eight ounces of oil to one gallon of spirit. There is a large consumption of otto of lemons in the manufacture of Eau de Cologne; that Farina uses it is easily discovered by adding a few drops of Liq. Ammoniæ fort. to half an ounce of his Eau de Cologne, the smell of the lemon is thereby brought out in a remarkable manner.
Perhaps it is not out of place here to remark, that in attempts to discover the composition of certain perfumes, we are greatly assisted by the use of strong Liq. Ammoniæ. Certain of the essential oils combining with the Ammonia, allow those which do not do so, if present in the compound, to be smelt.
Lemon Grass.—According to Pereira, the otto in the market under this name is derived from the Andropogon schœnanthus a species of grass which grows abundantly in India. It is cultivated to a large extent in Ceylon and in the Moluccas purposely for the otto, which from the plant is easily procured by distillation. Lemon grass otto, or, as it is sometimes called, oil of verbena, on account of its similarity of odor to that favorite plant, is imported into this country in old English porter and stout bottles. It is very powerful, well adapted for perfuming soaps and greases, but its principal consumption is in the manufacture of artificial essence of verbena. From its comparatively low price, great strength, and fine perfume (when diluted), the lemon grass otto may be much more used than at present, with considerable advantage to the retail shopkeeper.
Lilac.—The fragrance of the flowers of this ornamental shrub is well known. The essence of lilac is obtained either by the process of maceration, or enfleurage with grease, and afterwards treating the pomatum thus formed with rectified spirit, in the same manner as previously described for cassie; the odor so much resembles tubereuse, as to be frequently used to adulterate the latter, the demand for tubereuse being at all times greater than the supply. A beautiful Imitation of Essence of White Lilac may be compounded thus:—
Spirituous extract from tubereuse pomade, 1 pint.
" of orange-flower pomade, 1/4 "
Otto of almonds, 3 drops.
Extract of civet, 1/2 oz.
The civet is only used to give permanence to the perfume of the handkerchief.
Lily.—The manufacturing perfumer rejects the advice of the inspired writer, to "consider the lilies of the field." Rich as they are in odor, they are not cultivated for their perfume. If lilies are thrown into oil of sweet almonds, or ben oil, they impart to it their sweet smell; but to obtain anything like fragrance, the infusion must be repeated a dozen times with the same oil, using fresh flowers for each infusion, after standing a day or so. The oil being shaken with an equal quantity of spirit for a week, gives up its odor to the alcohol, and thus extract of lilies may be made. But how it is made is thus:—
Imitation "Lily of the Valley."
Extract of tubereuse, 1/2 pint.
" jasmine, 1 oz.
" fleur d'orange, 2 oz.
" vanilla, 3 oz.
" cassie, 1/4 pint.
" rose, 1/4 "
Otto of almonds, 3 drops.
Keep this mixture together for a month, and then bottle it for sale. It is a perfume that is very much admired.
Mace.—Ground mace is used in the manufacture of some of those scented powders called Sachets. A strong-smelling essential oil may be procured from it by distillation, but it is rarely used.
Magnolia.—The perfume of this flower is superb; practically, however, it is of little use to the manufacturer, the large size of the blossoms and their comparative scarcity prevents their being used, but a very excellent imitation of its odor is made as under, and is that which is found in the perfumers' shops of London and Paris.
Imitation "Essence of Magnolia."
Spirituous extract of orange-flower pomatum, 1 pint.
" " rose pomatum, 2 pints.
" " tubereuse pomatum, 1/2 pint.
" " violet pomatum, 1/2 "
Essential oil of citron, 3 drs.
" " almonds, 10 drops.
Marjoram.—The otto procured by distilling Origanum majorana, commonly called oil of oringeat by the French, is exceedingly powerful, and in this respect resembles all the ottos from the different species of thyme, of which the marjoram is one. One hundred weight of the dry herb yields about ten ounces of the otto. Oringeat oil is extensively used for perfuming soap, but more in France than in England. It is the chief ingredient used by Gelle Frères, of Paris, for scenting their "Tablet Monstre Soap," so common in the London shops.
Meadow Sweet.—A sweet-smelling otto can be produced by distilling the Spiræa ulmaria, but it is not used by perfumers.
Melissa. See Balm.
Mignonette.—But for the exquisite odor of this little flower, it would scarcely be known otherwise than as a weed. Sweet as it is in its natural state, and prolific in odor, we are not able to maintain its characteristic smell as an essence. Like many others, during separation from the plant, the fragrance is more or less modified; though not perfect, it still reminds the sense of the odor of the flowers. To give it that sweetness which it appears to want, a certain quantity of violet is added to bring it up to the market odor.
As this plant is so very prolific in odor, we think something might be done with it in England, especially as it flourishes as well in this country as in France; and we desire to see Flower Farms and organized Perfumatories established in the British Isles, for the extraction of essences and the manufacture of pomade and oils, of such flowers as are indigenous, or that thrive in the open fields of our country. Besides opening up a new field of enterprise and good investment for capital, it would give healthy employment to many women and children. Open air employment for the young is of no little consideration to maintain the stamina of the future generation; for it cannot be denied that our factory system and confined cities are prejudicial to the physical condition of the human family.
To return from our digression. The essence of mignonette, or, as it is more often sold under the name of Extrait de Rézéda, is prepared by infusing the rézéda pomade in rectified spirit, in the proportion of one pound of pomade to one pint of spirit, allowing them to digest together for a fortnight, when the essence is filtered off the pomade. One ounce of extrait d'ambré is added to every pint. This is done to give permanence to the odor upon the handkerchief, and does not in any way alter its odor.
Miribane.—The French name for artificial essence of almond (see Almond).
Mint.—All the Menthidæ yield fragrant ottos by distillation. The otto of the spear-mint (M. viridis) is exceedingly powerful, and very valuable for perfuming soap, in conjunction with other perfumes. Perfumers use the ottos of the mint in the manufacture of mouth-washes and dental liquids. The leading ingredient in the celebrated "eau Botot" is oil of peppermint in alcohol. A good imitation may be made thus:—
Eau de Botot.
Tincture of cedar wood, 1 pint.
" myrrh, 1 oz.
Oil of peppermint, 1/2 dr.
" spear mint, 1/4 dr.
" cloves, 10 drops.
" roses, 10 "
Modifications of this formula can be readily suggested, but the main object is to retain the mint ottos, as they have more power than any other aromatic to overcome the smell of tobacco. Mouth-washes, it must be remembered, are as much used for rinsing the mouth after smoking as for a dentifrice.
Myrtle.—A very fragrant otto may be procured by distilling both flowers and leaves of the common myrtle; one hundred-weight will yield about five ounces of the volatile oil. The demand for essence of myrtle being very limited, the odor as found in the perfumers' shops is very rarely a genuine article, but it is imitated thus:—
Imitation Essence of Myrtle.
Extract of vanilla, 1/2 pint.
" roses 1 "
Extract of fleur d'orange, 1/2 pint.
" tubereuse, 1/2 "
" jasmine, 2 oz.
Mix and allow to stand for a fortnight: it is then fit for bottling, and is a perfume that gives a great deal of satisfaction.
Myrtle-flower water is sold in France under the name of eau d'ange, and may be prepared like rose, elder, or other flower waters.
Neroli, or Orange-flower.—Two distinct odors are procurable from the orange-blossom, varying according to the methods adopted for procuring them. This difference of perfume from the same flower is a great advantage to the manufacturer. This curious fact is worthy of inquiry by the chemical philosopher. It is not peculiar to the orange-flower, but applies to many others, especially rose—probably to all flowers.
When orange-flowers are treated by the maceration process, that is, by infusion in a fatty body, we procure orange-flower pomatum, its strength and quality being regulated by the number of infusions of the flower made in the same grease.
By digesting this orange-flower pomatum in rectified spirits in the proportions of from six pounds to eight pounds of pomade to a gallon of spirit, for about a fortnight at a summer heat, we obtain the extrait de fleur d'orange, or extract of orange-flowers, a handkerchief perfume surpassed by none. In this state its odor resembles the original so much, that with closed eyes the best judge could not distinguish the scent of the extract from that of the flower. The peculiar flowery odor of this extract renders it valuable to perfumers, not only to sell in a pure state, but slightly modified with other extraits passes for "sweet pea," "magnolia," &c., which it slightly resembles in fragrance.
Orange. Orange.
Now, when orange-flowers are distilled with water, we procure the otto of the blossom, which is known commercially as oil of neroli. The neroli procured from the flowers of the Citrus aurantium is considered to be the finest quality, and is called "neroli petale." The next quality, "neroli bigarade," is derived from the blossoms of the Citrus bigaradia, or Seville orange. Another quality, which is considered inferior to the preceding, is the neroli petit grain, obtained by distilling the leaves and the young unripe fruit of the different species of the citrus.
The "petale" and "bigarade" neroli are used to an enormous extent in the manufacture of eau de Cologne and other handkerchief perfumes. The petit grain is mainly consumed for scenting soap. To form the esprit de neroli, dissolve 1-1/2 oz. of neroli petale in one gallon of rectified spirits. Although very agreeable, and extensively used in the manufacture of bouquets, it has no relation to the flowery odor of the extrait de fleur d'orange, as derived from the same flowers by maceration; in fact, it has as different an odor as though obtained from another plant, yet in theory both these extraits are but alcoholic solutions of the otto of the flower.
The water used for distillation in procuring the neroli, when well freed from the oil, is imported into this country under the name of eau de fleur d'orange, and may be used, like elder-flower and rose-water, for the skin, and as an eye lotion. It is remarkable for its fine fragrance, and it is astonishing that it is not more used, being moderate in price. (See Syringa.)
Nutmeg.—The beautiful odor of the nutmeg is familiar to all. Though an otto can be drawn from them of a very fragrant character, it is rarely used in perfumery. The ground nuts are, however, used advantageously in the combinations of scented powders used for scent bags.—See "Sachet's Powders."
Olibanum is a gum resin, used to a limited extent in this country, in the manufacture of incense and pastilles. It is chiefly interesting as being one of those odoriferous bodies of which frequent mention is made in the Holy volume.[C]
"It is believed," says Burnett, "to have been one of the ingredients in the sweet incense of the Jews; and it is still burnt as incense in the Greek and Romish churches, where the diffusion of such odors round the altar forms a part of the prescribed religious service."
Olibanum is partially soluble in alcohol, and, like most of the balsams, probably owes its perfume to a peculiar odoriferous body, associated with the benzoic acid it contains.
For making the tincture or extract of olibanum, take 1 pound of the gum to 1 gallon of the spirit.
Orange.—Under the title "Neroli" we have already spoken of the odoriferous principle of the orange-blossom. We have now to speak of what is known in the market as Essence of Orange, or, as it is more frequently termed, Essence of Portugal,—a name, however, which we cannot admit in a classified list of the "odors of plants."
The otto of orange-peel, or odoriferous principle of the orange fruit, is procured by expression and by distillation. The peel is rasped in order to crush the little vessels or sacs that imprison the otto.
Its abundance in the peel is shown by pinching a piece near the flame of a candle; the otto that spirts out ignites with a brilliant illumination.
It has many uses in perfumery, and from its refreshing fragrance finds many admirers.
It is the leading ingredient in what is sold as "Lisbon Water" and "Eau de Portugal." The following is a very useful form for preparing
Lisbon Water.
Rectified spirit (not less than 60 over proof), 1 gallon.
Otto of orange peel, 3 oz.
" lemon peel, 3 oz.
" rose 1/4 oz.
This is a form for
Eau de Portugal.
Rectified spirit (60 over proof), 1 gallon.
Essential oil of orange peel, 6 oz.
" lemon peel, 1 oz.
" lemon grass, 1/4 oz.
" bergamot, 1 oz.
" otto of rose, 1/4 oz.
It should be noted that these perfumes are never to be filled into wet bottles, for if in any way damp from water, a minute portion of the ottos are separated, which gives an opalescent appearance to the mixture. Indeed, all bottles should be spirit rinsed prior to being filled with any perfume, but especially with those containing essences of orange or lemon peel.
Orris, properly Iris.—The dried rhizome of Iris florentina has a very pleasant odor, which, for the want of a better comparison, is said to resemble the smell of violets; it is, however, exceedingly derogatory to the charming aroma of that modest flower when such invidious comparisons are made. Nevertheless the perfume of iris root is good, and well worthy of the place it has obtained as a perfuming substance. The powder of orris root is very extensively used in the manufacture of sachet powders, tooth-powder, &c. It fathers that celebrated "oriental herb" known as "Odonto." For tincture of orris, or, as the perfumers call it,
Extract of Orris,
Take orris root, crushed, 7 lbs.
Rectified spirits, 1 gallon.
After standing together for about a fortnight, the extract is fit to take off. It requires considerable time to drain away, and, to prevent loss, the remainder of the orris should be placed in the tincture press. This extract enters into the composition of many of the most celebrated bouquets, such as "Jockey Club," and others, but is never sold alone, because its odor, although grateful, is not sufficiently good to stand public opinion upon its own merits; but in combination its value is very great; possessing little aroma itself, yet it has the power of strengthening the odor of other fragrant bodies; like the flint and steel, which though comparatively incombustible, readily fire inflammable bodies.
Palm.—The odor of palm oil—the fat oil of commerce—is due to a fragrant principle which it contains. By infusion in alcohol, the odoriferous body is dissolved, and resembles, to a certain extent, the tincture of orris, or of extract of violet, but is very indifferent, and is not likely to be brought into use, though several attempts have been made to render it of service when the cultivation of the violets have failed from bad seasons.
Patchouly.—Pogostemon patchouly (Lindley), Plectranthus crassifolius (Burnett), is an herb that grows extensively in India and China. It somewhat resembles our garden sage in its growth and form, but the leaves are not so fleshy.
Patchouly. Patchouly.
The odor of patchouly is due to an otto contained in the leaves and stems, and is readily procured by distillation. 1 cwt. of good herb will yield about 28 oz. of the essential oil, which is of a dark brown color, and of a density about the same as that of oil of sandal wood, which it resembles in its physical character. Its odor is the most powerful of any derived from the botanic kingdom; hence, if mixed in the proportion of measure for measure, it completely covers the smell of all other bodies.
Extract of Patchouly.
Rectified spirit, 1 gallon.
Otto of patchouly, 1-1/4 oz.
" rose, 1/4 oz.
The essence of patchouly thus made is that which is found in the perfumers' shops of Paris and London. Although few perfumes have had such a fashionable run, yet when smelled at in its pure state, it is far from agreeable, having a kind of mossy or musty odor, analogous to Lycopodium, or, as some say, it smells of "old coats."
The characteristic smell of Chinese or Indian ink is due to some admixture of this herb.
The origin of the use of patchouly as a perfume in Europe is curious. A few years ago real Indian shawls bore an extravagant price, and purchasers could always distinguish them by their odor; in fact, they were perfumed with patchouly. The French manufacturers had for some time successfully imitated the Indian fabric, but could not impart the odor.
At length they discovered the secret, and began to import the plant to perfume articles of their make, and thus palm off homespun shawls as real Indian! From this origin the perfumers have brought it into use. Patchouly herb is extensively used for scenting drawers in which linen is kept; for this purpose it is best to powder the leaves and put them into muslin sacks, covered with silk, after the manner of the old-fashioned lavender-bag. In this state it is very efficacious in preventing the clothes from being attacked by moths. Several combinations of patchouly will be given in the recipes for "bouquets and nosegays."
Pea (Sweet).—A very fine odor may be abstracted from the flowers of the chick-vetch by maceration in any fatty body, and then digesting the pomade produced in spirit. It is, however, rarely manufactured, because a very close
Imitation of the Essence of Sweet Pea.
can be prepared thus:—
Extract of tuberose, 1/2 pint.
" fleur d'orange, 1/2 "
" rose from pomatum, 1/2 "
" vanilla, 1 oz.
Scents, like sounds, appear to influence the olfactory nerve in certain definite degrees. There is, as it were, an octave of odors like an octave in music; certain odors coincide, like the keys of an instrument. Such as almond, heliotrope, vanilla, and orange-blossoms blend together, each producing different degrees of a nearly similar impression. Again, we have citron, lemon, orange-peel, and verbena, forming a higher octave of smells, which blend in a similar manner. The metaphor is completed by what we are pleased to call semi-odors, such as rose and rose geranium for the half note; petty grain, neroli, a black key, followed by fleur d'orange. Then we have patchouli, sandal-wood, and vitivert, and many others running into each other.
From the odors already known we may produce, by uniting them in proper proportion, the smell of almost any flower, except jasmine.
The odor of some flowers resembles others so nearly that we are almost induced to believe them to be the same thing, or, at least, if not evolved from the plant as such, to become so by the action of the air-oxidation. It is known that some actually are identical in composition, although produced from totally different plants, such as camphor, turpentine, rosemary. Hence we may presume that chemistry will sooner or later produce one from the other, for with many it is merely an atom of water or an atom of oxygen that causes the difference. It would be a grand thing to produce otto of roses from oil of rosemary, or from the rose geranium oil, and theory indicates its possibility.
The essential oil of almonds in a bottle that contains a good deal of air-oxygen, and but a very little of the oil, spontaneously passes into another odoriferous body, benzoic acid; which is seen in crystals to form over the dry parts of the flask. This is a natural illustration of this idea. In giving the recipe for "sweet pea" as above, we form it with the impression that its odor resembles the orange-blossom, which similarity is approached nearer by the addition of the rose and tuberose.
The vanilla is used merely to give permanence to the scent on the handkerchief, and this latter body is chosen in preference to extract of musk or ambergris, which would answer the same purpose of giving permanence to the more volatile ingredients; because the vanilla strikes the same key of the olfactory nerve as the orange-blossom, and thus no new idea of a different scent is brought about as the perfume dies off from the handkerchief. When perfumes are not mixed upon this principle, then we hear that such and such a perfume becomes "sickly" or "faint" after they have been on the handkerchief a short time.
Pine-apple.—Both Dr. Hoffman and Dr. Lyon Playfair have fallen into some error in their inferences with regard to the application of this odor in perfumery. After various practical experiments conducted in a large perfumatory, we have come to the conclusion that it cannot be so applied, simply because when the essence of pine-apple is smelled at, the vapor produces an involuntary action of the larynx, producing cough, when exceedingly dilute. Even in the infinitesimal portions it still produces disagreeable irritation of the air-pipes, which, if prolonged, such as is expected if used upon a handkerchief, is followed by intense headache. It is obvious, therefore, that the legitimate use of the essence of pine-apple (butyric ether) cannot be adapted with benefit to the manufacturing perfumer, although invaluable to the confectioner as a flavoring material. What we have here said refers to the artificial essence of pine-apple, or butyrate of ethyloxide, which, if very much diluted with alcohol, resembles the smell of pine-apple, and hence its name; but how far the same observations are applicable to the true essential oil from the fruit or epidermis of the pine-apple, remains to be seen when we procure it. As the West Indian pine-apples are now coming freely into the market, the day is probably not distant when demonstrative experiments can be tried; but hitherto it must be remembered our experiments have only been performed with a body resembling in smell the true essential oil of the fruit. The physical action of all ethers upon the human body is quite sufficient to prevent their application in perfumery, however useful in confectionary, which it is understood has to deal with another of the senses,—not of smell, but of taste. The commercial "essence of pine-apple," or "pine-apple oil," and "jargonelle pear-oil," are admitted only to be labelled such, but really are certain organic acid ethers. For the present, then, perfumers must only look on these bodies as so many lines in the "Poetry of Science," which, for the present, are without practical application in his art.
Pink.—Dianthus Caryophyllus.—The clove pink emits a most fragrant odor, "especially at night," says Darwin.
"The lavish pink that scents the garden round,"
is not, however, at present applied in perfumery, except in name.
Imitation Essence of Clove Pink.
Esprit rose, 1/2 pint.
" fleur d'orange, 1/4 "
" " de cassie, 1/4 "
" vanilla, 2 oz.
Oil of cloves, 10 drops.
It is remarkable how very much this mixture resembles the odor of the flower, and the public never doubt its being the "real thing."
Rhodium.—When rose-wood, the lignum of the Convolvulus scoparius, is distilled, a sweet-smelling oil is procured, resembling in some slight degree the fragrance of the rose, and hence its name. At one time, that is, prior to the cultivation of the rose-leaf geranium, the distillates from rose-wood and from the root of the Genista canariensis (Canary-rose-wood), were principally drawn for the adulteration of real otto of roses, but as the geranium oil answers so much better, the oil of rhodium has fallen into disuse, hence its comparative scarcity in the market at the present day, though our grandfathers knew it well. One cwt. of wood yields about three ounces of oil.
Ground rose-wood is valuable as a basis in the manufacture of sachet powders for perfuming the wardrobe.
The French have given the name jacaranda to rose-wood, under the idea that the plant called jacaranda by the Brazilians yields it, which is not the case; "the same word has perhaps been the origin of palisander—palixander, badly written."—Burnett.
Rose.—
"Go, crop the gay rose's vermeil bloom, And waft its spoils, a sweet perfume, In incense to the skies."
Ogilvie.
This queen of the garden loses not its diadem in the perfuming world. The oil of roses, or, as it is commonly called, the otto, or attar, of roses, is procured (contrary to so many opposite statements) simply by distilling the roses with water.
The otto, or attar, of rose of commerce is derived from the Rosa centifolia provincialis. Very extensive rose farms exist at Adrianople (Turkey in Europe); at Broussa, now famous as the residence of Abd-el-Kader; and at Uslak (Turkey in Asia); also at Ghazepore, in India.
The cultivators in Turkey are principally the Christian inhabitants of the low countries of the Balkan, between Selimno, and Carloya, as far as Philippopolis, in Bulgaria, about 200 miles from Constantinople. In good seasons, this district yields 75,000 ounces; but in bad seasons only 20,000 to 30,000 ounces of attar are obtained. It is estimated that it requires at least 2000 rose blooms to yield one drachm of otto.
The otto slightly varies in odor from different districts; many places furnish an otto which solidifies more readily than others, and, therefore, this is not a sure guide of purity, though many consider it such. That which was exhibited in the Crystal Palace of 1851, as "from Ghazepore," in India, obtained the prize.
"Attar of roses, made in Cashmere, is considered superior to any other; a circumstance not surprising, as, according to Hugel, the flower is here produced of surpassing fragrance as well as beauty. A large quantity of rose-water twice distilled is allowed to run off into an open vessel, placed over night in a cool running stream, and in the morning the oil is found floating on the surface in minute specks, which are taken off very carefully by means of a blade of sword-lily. When cool it is of a dark green color, and as hard as resin, not becoming liquid at a temperature about that of boiling water. Between 500 and 600 pounds' weight of leaves is required to produce one ounce of the attar."—Indian Encyclopædia.
Pure otto of roses, from its cloying sweetness, has not many admirers; when diluted, however, there is nothing to equal it in odor, especially if mixed in soap, to form rose soap, or in pure spirit, to form the esprit de rose. The soap not allowing the perfume to evaporate very fast, we cannot be surfeited with the smell of the otto.
The finest preparation of rose as an odor is made at Grasse, in France. Here the flowers are not treated for the otto, but are subjected to the process of maceration in fat, or in oil, as described under jasmine, heliotrope, &c.
The rose pomade thus made, if digested in alcohol, say 8 lbs. of No. 24 Pomade to one gallon of spirit, yields an esprit de rose of the first order, very superior to that which is made by the addition of otto to spirit. It is difficult to account for this difference, but it is sufficiently characteristic to form a distinct odor. See the article on fleur d'orange and neroli (pp. 77, 78), which have similar qualities, previously described. The esprit de rose made from the French rose pomade is never sold retail by the perfumer; he reserves this to form part of his recherche bouquets.
Some wholesale druggists have, however, been selling it now for some time to country practitioners, for them to form extemporaneous rose-water, which it does to great perfection. Roses are cultivated to a large extent in England, near Mitcham, in Surrey, for perfumers' use, to make rose-water. In the season when successive crops can be got, which is about the end of June, or the early part of July, they are gathered as soon as the dew is off, and sent to town in sacks. When they arrive, they are immediately spread out upon a cool floor: otherwise, if left in a heap, they heat to such an extent, in two or three hours, as to be quite spoiled. There is no organic matter which so rapidly absorbs oxygen, and becomes heated spontaneously, as a mass of freshly gathered roses.
To preserve these roses, the London perfumers immediately pickle them; for this purpose, the leaves are separated from the stalks, and to every bushel of flowers, equal to about six pounds' weight, one pound of common salt is thoroughly rubbed in. The salt absorbs the water existing in the petals, and rapidly becomes brine, reducing the whole to a pasty mass, which is finally stowed away in casks. In this way they will keep almost any length of time, without the fragrance being seriously injured. A good rose-water can be prepared by distilling 12 lbs. of pickled roses, and 2-1/2 gallons of water. "Draw" off two gallons; the product will be the double-distilled rose-water of the shops. The rose-water that is imported from the South of France is, however, very superior in odor to any that can be produced here. As it is a residuary product of the distillation of roses for procuring the attar, it has a richness of aroma which appears to be inimitable with English-grown roses. There are four modifications of essence of rose for the handkerchief, which are the ne plus ultra of the perfumer's art. They are,—esprit de rose triple, essence of white of roses, essence of tea rose, and essence of moss rose. The following are the recipes for their formation:—
Esprit de Rose Triple.
Rectified alcohol, 1 gallon.
Otto of rose, 3 oz.
Mix at a summer heat; in the course of a quarter of an hour the whole of the otto is dissolved, and is then ready for bottling and sale. In the winter season beautiful crystals of the otto—if it is good—appear disseminated through the esprit.
Essence of Moss Rose.
Spirituous extract from French Rose pomatum, 1 quart.
Esprit de rose triple, 1 pint.
Extracts fleur d'orange pomatum, 1 "
" of ambergris, 1/2 "
" musk, 4 oz.
Allow the ingredients to remain together for a fortnight; then filter, if requisite, and it is ready for sale.
Essence of White Rose.
Esprit de rose from pomatum, 1 quart.
" " triple, 1 "
" violette, 1 "
Extracts of jasmine 1 pint.
" patchouly, 1/2 "
Essence of Tea Rose.
Esprit de rose pomade, 1 pint.
" " triple, 1 "
Extract of rose-leaf geranium, 1 "
" sandal-wood, 1/2 "
" neroli, 1/4 "
" orris, 1/4 "
Rosemary.—
"There's rosemary, that's for remembrance."
Shakspeare.
By distilling the Rosmarinus officinalis a thin limpid otto is procured, having the characteristic odor of the plant, which is more aromatic than sweet. One cwt. of the fresh herb yields about twenty-four ounces of oil. Otto of rosemary is very extensively used in perfumery, especially in combination with other ottos for scenting soap. Eau de Cologne cannot be made without it, and in the once famous "Hungary water" it is the leading ingredient. The following is the composition of
Hungary Water.
Rectified alcohol, 1 gallon.
Otto of English rosemary, 2 oz.
" lemon-peel, 1 oz.
" balm (Melissa), 1 oz.
" mint, 1/2 drachm.
Esprit de rose, 1 pint.
Extract of fleur d'orange, 1 "
It is put up for sale in a similar way to eau de Cologne, and is said to take its name from one of the queens of Hungary, who is reported to have derived great benefit from a bath containing it, at the age of seventy-five years. There is no doubt that clergymen and orators, while speaking for any time, would derive great benefit from perfuming their handkerchief with Hungary water or eau de Cologne, as the rosemary they contain excites the mind to vigorous action, sufficient of the stimulant being inhaled by occasionally wiping the face with the handkerchief wetted with these "waters." Shakspeare giving us the key, we can understand how it is that such perfumes containing rosemary are universally said to be "so refreshing!"
Sage.—A powerful-scenting otto can be procured by distillation from any of the Salvieæ. It is rarely used, but is nevertheless very valuable in combination for scenting soap.
Dried sage-leaves, ground, will compound well for sachets.
Santal.—Santalum album.
"The santal tree perfumes, when riven, The axe that laid it low." Cameron.
This is an old favorite with the lovers of scent; it is the wood that possesses the odor. The finest santal-wood grows in the island of Timor, and the Santal-wood Islands, where it is extensively cultivated for the Chinese market. In the religious ceremonies of the Brahmins, Hindoos, and Chinese, santal-wood is burned, by way of incense, to an extent almost beyond belief. The Santala grew plentifully in China, but the continued offerings to the Buddahs have almost exterminated the plant from the Celestial Empire; and such is the demand, that it is about to be cultivated in Western Australia, in the expectation of a profitable return, which we doubt not will be realized; England alone would consume tenfold the quantity it does were its price within the range of other perfuming substances. The otto which exists in the santal-wood is readily procured by distillation; 1 cwt. of good wood will yield about 30 ounces of otto.
Santal-wood. Santal-wood.
The white ant, which is so common in India and China, eating into every organic matter that it comes across, appears to have no relish for santal-wood; hence it is frequently made into caskets, jewel-boxes, deed-cases, &c. This quality, together with its fragrance, renders it a valuable article to the cabinet-makers of the East.
The otto of santal is remarkably dense, and is above all others oleaginous in its appearance, and, when good, is of a dark straw color. When dissolved in spirit, it enters into the composition of a great many of the old-fashioned bouquets, such as "Marechale," and others, the formulæ of which will be given hereafter. Perfumers thus make what is called
Extrait de Bois de Santal.
Rectified spirits, 7 pints.
Esprit de rose, 1 pint.
Essential oil, i.e.otto, of santal, 3 oz.
All those Extracts, made by dissolving the otto in alcohol, are nearly white, or at least only slightly tinted by the color of the oil used. When a perfumer has to impart a delicate odeur to a lady's mouchoir, which in some instances costs "no end of money," and is an object, at any cost, to retain unsullied, it behooves his reputation to sell an article that will not stain a delicate white fabric. Now, when a perfume is made in a direct manner from any wood or herb, as tinctures are made, that is, by infusion in alcohol, there is obtained, besides the odoriferous substance, a solution of coloring and extractive matter, which is exceedingly detrimental to its fragrance, besides seriously staining any cambric handkerchief that it may be used upon; and for this reason this latter method should never be adopted, except for use upon silk handkerchiefs.
The odor of santal assimilates well with rose; and hence, prior to the cultivation of rose-leaf geranium, it was used to adulterate otto of roses; but is now but seldom used for that purpose.
By a "phonetic" error, santal is often printed "sandal," and "sandel."
Sassafras.—Some of the perfumers of Germany use a tincture of the wood of the Laurus sassafras in the manufacture of hair-washes and other nostrums; but as, in our opinion, it has rather a "physicky" smell than flowery, we cannot recommend the German recipes. The Eau Athenienne, notwithstanding, has some reputation as a hair-water, but is little else than a weak tincture of sassafras.
Spike.—French oil of lavender, which is procured from the Lavandula spica, is generally called oil of spike. (See Lavender.)
Storax and Tolu are used in perfumery in the same way as benzoin, namely, by solution in spirit as a tincture. An ounce of tincture of storax, tolu, or benzoin, being added to a pound of any very volatile perfume, gives a degree of permanence to it, and makes it last longer on the handkerchief than it otherwise would: thus, when any perfume is made by the solution of an otto in spirit, it is usual to add to it a small portion of a substance which is less volatile, such as extract of musk, extract of vanilla, ambergris, storax, tolu, orris, vitivert, or benzoin; the manufacturer using his judgment and discretion as to which of these materials are to be employed, choosing, of course, those which are most compatible with the odor he is making.
The power which these bodies have of "fixing" a volatile substance, renders them valuable to the perfumer, independent of their aroma, which is due in many cases to benzoic acid, slightly modified by an esential oil peculiar to each substance, and which is taken up by the alcohol, together with a portion of resin. When the perfume is put upon a handkerchief, the most volatile bodies disappear first: thus, after the alcohol has evaporated, the odor of the ottos appear stronger; if it contains any resinous body, the ottos are held in solution, as it were, by the resin, and thus retained on the fabric. Supposing a perfume to be made of otto only, without any "fixing" substance, then, as the perfume "dies away," the olfactory nerve, if tutored, will detect its composition, for it spontaneously analyzes itself, no two ottos having the same volatility: thus, make a mixture of rose, jasmine, and patchouly; the jasmine predominates first, then the rose, and, lastly, the patchouly, which will be found hours after the others have disappeared.
Syringa.—The flowers of the Philadelphus coronarius, or common garden syringa, have an intense odor resembling the orange-blossom; so much so, that in America the plant is often termed "mock orange." A great deal of the pomatum sold as pommade surfin, à la fleur d'orange, by the manufacturers of Cannes, is nothing more than fine suet perfumed with syringa blossoms by the maceration process. Fine syringa pomade could be made in England at a quarter the cost of what is paid for the so-called orange pomatum.
Thyme.—All the different species of thyme, but more particularly the lemon thyme, the Thymus serpyllum, as well as the marjorams, origanum, &c., yield by distillation fragrant ottos, that are extensively used by manufacturing perfumers for scenting soaps; though well adapted for this purpose, they do not answer at all in any other combinations. Both in grease and in spirit all these ottos impart an herby smell (very naturally) rather than a flowery one, and, as a consequence, they are not considered recherché.
When any of these herbs are dried and ground, they usefully enter into the composition of sachet powders.
Tonquin, or Tonka.—The seeds of the Dipterix odorata are the tonquin or coumarouma beans of commerce. When fresh they are exceedingly fragrant, having an intense odor of newly made hay. The Anthoxanthum odoratum, or sweet-smelling vernal grass, to which new hay owes its odor, probably yields identically the same fragrant principle, and it is remarkable that both tonquin beans and vernal grass, while actually growing, are nearly scentless, but become rapidly aromatic when severed from the parent stock.
Chemically considered, tonquin beans are very interesting, containing, when fresh, a fragrant volatile otto (to which their odor is principally due), benzoic acid, a fat oil and a neutral principal—Coumarin. In perfumery they are valuable, as, when ground, they form with other bodies an excellent and permanent sachet, and by infusion in spirit, the tincture or extract of tonquin enters into a thousand of the compound essences; but on account of its great strength it must be used with caution, otherwise people say your perfume is "snuffy," owing to the predominance of the odor and its well-known use in the boxes of those who indulge in the titillating dust.
Tonquin. Tonquin.
Extract of Tonquin.
Tonquin beans, 1 lb.
Rectified spirit, 1 gallon.
Digest for a month at a summer heat. Even after this maceration they are still useful when dried and ground in those compounds known as Pot Pourri, Olla Podria, &c. The extract of tonquin, like extract of orris and extract of vanilla, is never sold pure, but is only used in the manufacture of compound perfumes. It is the leading ingredient in Bouquet du Champ—The field Bouquet—the great resemblance of which to the odor of the hay-field, renders it a favorite to the lovers of the pastoral.
Tuberose.—One of the most exquisite odors with which we are acquainted is obtained by enfleurage from the tuberose flower. It is, as it were, a nosegay in itself, and reminds one of that delightful perfume observed in a well-stocked flower-garden at evening close; consequently it is much in demand by the perfumers for compounding sweet essences.
Extract of Tuberose.
Eight pounds of No. 24 tuberose pomatum, cut up very fine, is to be placed into 1 gallon of the best rectified spirit. After standing for three weeks or a month at summer heat, and with frequent agitation, it is fit to draw off, and being strained through cotton wool, is ready either for sale or use in the manufacture of bouquets.
This essence of tuberose, like that of jasmine, is exceedingly volatile, and if sold in its pure state quickly "flies off" the handkerchief; it is therefore necessary to add some fixing ingredient, and for this purpose it is best to use one ounce of extract of orris, or half an ounce of extract of vanilla, to every pint of tuberose.
Vanilla.—The pod or bean of the Vanilla planifolia yields a perfume of rare excellence. When good, and if kept for some time, it becomes covered with an efflorescence of needle crystals possessing properties similar to benzoic acid, but differing from it in composition. Few objects are more beautiful to look upon than this, when viewed by a microscope with the aid of polarized light.
Vanilla. Vanilla.
Extract of Vanilla.
Vanilla pods, 1/2 lb.
Rectified spirit, 1 gallon.
Slit the pods from end to end, so as to lay open the interior, then cut them up in lengths of about a quarter of an inch, macerate with occasional agitation for about a month; the tincture thus formed will only require straining through cotton to be ready for any use that is required. In this state it is rarely sold for a perfume, but is consumed in the manufacture of compound odors, bouquets, or nosegays, as they are called.
Extract of Vanilla is also used largely in the manufacture of hair-washes, which are readily made by mixing the extract of vanilla with either rose, orange, elder, or rosemary water, and afterwards filtering.
We need scarcely mention, that vanilla is greatly used by cooks and confectioners for flavoring.
Verbena, or Vervaine.—The scented species of this plant, the lemon verbena, Aloysia citriodora (Hooker), gives one of the finest perfumes with which we are acquainted; it is well known as yielding a delightful fragrance by merely drawing the hand over the plant; some of the little vessels or sacks containing the otto must be crushed in this act, as there is little or no odor by merely smelling at the plant.
The otto, which can be extracted from the leaves by distillation with water, on account of its high price, is scarcely, if ever, used by the manufacturing perfumer, but it is most successfully imitated by mixing the otto of lemon grass, Andropogon schœnanthus, with rectified spirit, the odor of which resembles the former to a nicety. The following is a good form for making the
Extract of Verbena.
Rectified spirit, 1 pint.
Otto of lemon grass, 3 drachms.
" lemon peel, 2 oz.
" orange peel, 1/2 oz.
After standing together for a few hours and then filtering, it is fit for sale.
Another mixture of this kind, presumed by the public to be made from the same plant, but of a finer quality, is composed thus—it is sold under the title
Extrait de Verveine.
Rectified spirit, 1 pint.
Otto of orange peel, 1 oz.
" lemon peel, 2 oz.
" citron, 1 drachm.
" lemon grass, 2-1/2 drachms.
Extrait de fleur d'orange, 7 oz.
" " tubereuse, 7 oz.
Esprit de rose, 1/2 pint.
This mixture is exceedingly refreshing, and is one of the most elegant perfumes that is made. Being white, it does not stain the handkerchief. It is best when sold fresh made, as by age the citrine oils oxidize, and the perfume acquires an ethereal odor, and then customers say "it is sour." The vervaine thus prepared enters into the composition of a great many of the favorite bouquets that are sold under the title "Court Bouquet," and others which are mixtures of violet, rose, and jasmine, with verbena or vervaine in different proportions. In these preparations, as also in Eau de Portugal, and in fact where any of the citrine ottos are used, a much finer product is obtained by using grape spirit or brandy in preference to the English corn spirit as a solvent for them. Nor do they deteriorate so quickly in French spirit as in English. Whether this be due to the oil of wine (œanthic ether) or not we cannot say, but think it is so.
Violet.—
"The forward violet thus did I chide: Sweet thief, whence didst thou steal thy sweet that smells, If not from my love's breath?"
The perfume exhaled by the Viola odorata is so universally admired, that to speak in its favor would be more than superfluous. The demand for the "essence of violets" is far greater than the manufacturing perfumers are at present able to supply, and as a consequence, it is difficult to procure the genuine article through the ordinary sources of trade.
Real violet is, however, sold by many of the retail perfumers of the West End of London, but at a price that prohibits its use except by the affluent or extravagant votaries of fashion. The violet farms from whence the flowers are procured to make this perfume are very extensive at Nice and Grasse, also in the neighborhood of Florence. The true smelling principle or otto of violets has never yet been isolated: a very concentrated solution in alcohol impresses the olfactory nerve with the idea of the presence of hydrocyanic acid, which is probably a true impression. Burnett says that the plant Viola tricolor (heart's ease), when bruised, smells like peach kernels, and doubtless, therefore, contains prussic acid.
The flowers of the heart's ease are scentless, but the plant evidently contains a principle which in other species of the Viola, is eliminated as the "sweet that smells" so beautifully alluded to by Shakspeare.
For commercial purposes, the odor of the violet is procured in combination with spirit, oil, or suet, precisely according to the methods previously described for obtaining the aroma of some other flowers before mentioned, such as those for cassie, jasmine, orange-flower, namely, by maceration, or by enfleurage, the former method being principally adopted, followed by, when "essence" is required, digesting the pomade in rectified alcohol.
Good essence of violets, thus made, is of a beautiful green color, and, though of a rich deep tint, has no power to stain a white fabric, and its odor is perfectly natural.
The essence of violet, as prepared for retail sale, is thus made, according to the quality and strength of the pomade:—Take from six to eight pounds of the violet pomade, chop it up fine, and place it into one gallon of perfectly clean (free from fusel oil) rectified spirit, allow it to digest for three weeks or a month, then strain off the essence, and to every pint thereof add three ounces of tincture of orris root, and three ounces of esprit de cassie; it is then fit for sale.
We have often seen displayed for sale in druggists' shops plain tincture of orris root, done up in nice bottles, with labels upon them inferring the contents to be "Extract of Violet;" customers thus once "taken in" are not likely to be so a second time.
A good Imitation Essence of Violets is best prepared thus—
Spirituous extract of cassie pomade, 1 pint.
Esprit de rose, from pomade, 1/2 "
Tincture of orris, 1/2 "
Spirituous extract of tuberose pomade, 1/2 "
Otto of almonds, 3 drops.
After filtration it is fit for bottling. In this mixture, it is the extract of cassie which has the leading smell, but modified by the rose and tuberose becomes very much like the violet. Moreover, it has a green color, like the extract of violet; and as the eye influences the judgment by the sense of taste, so it does with the sense of smell. Extract of violet enters largely into the composition of several of the most popular bouquets, such as extract of spring flowers and many others.
Vitivert, or Kus-Kus, is the rhizome of an Indian grass. In the neighborhood of Calcutta, and in the city, this material has an extensive use by being manufactured into awnings, blinds, and sun-shades, called Tatty. During the hot seasons an attendant sprinkles water over them; this operation cools the apartment by the evaporation of the water, and, at the same time, perfumes the atmosphere, in a very agreeable manner, with the odoriferous principle of the vitivert. It has a smell between the aromatic or spicy odor and that of flowers—if such a distinction can be admitted. We classify it with orris root, not that it has any odor resembling it, but because it has a like effect in use in perfumery, and because it is prepared as a tincture for obtaining its odor.
About four pounds of the dried vitivert, as it is imported, being cut small and set to steep in a gallon of rectified spirits for a fortnight, produces the
Essence of Vitivert of the shops. In this state it is rarely used as a perfume, although it is occasionally asked for by those who, perhaps, have learnt to admire its odor by their previous residence in "the Eastern clime." The extract, essence, or tincture of vitivert, enters into the composition of several of the much-admired and old bouquets manufactured in the early days of perfumery in England, such as "Mousselaine des Indies," for which preparation M. Delcroix, in the zenith of his fame, created quite a furor in the fashionable world.
Vitivert. Vitivert.
Essence of vitivert is also made by dissolving 2 oz. of otto of vitivert in 1 gallon of spirit; this preparation is stronger than the tincture, as above.
Marechale and Bouquet du Roi, perfumes which have also "had their day," owe much of their peculiarity to the vitivert contained in them.
Bundles of vitivert are sold for perfuming linen and preventing moth, and, when ground, is used to manufacture certain sachet powders.
Otto of vitivert is procurable by distillation; a hundred-weight of vitivert yields about 14 oz. of otto, which in appearance very much resembles otto of santal. I have placed a sample of it in the museum at Kew.
Volkameria.—An exquisite perfume is sold under this name, presumed, of course, to be derived from the Volkameria inermis (Lindley). Whether it has a smell resembling the flower of that plant, or whether the plant blooms at all, we are unable to say. It is a native of India, and seems to be little known even in the botanic gardens of this country; however, the plant has a name, and that's enough for the versatile Parisian perfumer, and if the mixture he makes "takes" with the fashionable world—the plant which christens it has a fine perfume for a certainty!
Essence of Volkameria.
Esprit de violette, 1 pint.
" tubereuse, 1 "
" jasmine, 1/4 "
" rose, 1/2 "
Essence de muse, 2 oz.
Wallflower (Cherianthus).—Exquisite as is the odor of this flower, it is not used in perfumery, though no doubt it might be, and very successfully too, were the plant cultivated for that purpose. To this flower we would direct particular attention, as one well adapted for experiments to obtain its odoriferous principle in this country, our climate being good for its production. The mode for obtaining its odor has been indicated when we spoke of heliotrope, page 60. And if it answers on the small scale, there is little doubt of success in the large way, and there is no fear but that the scent of the old English wallflower will meet with a demand.
An Imitation Essence of Wallflower can be compounded thus:—
Extract fleur d'orange, 1 pint.
" vanilla, 1/2 "
Esprit de rose, 1 "
Extract of orris, 1/2 "
" cassie, 1/2 "
Essential oil of almonds, 5 drops.
Allow this mixture to be made up for two or three weeks prior to putting it up for sale.
Winter Green (Trientalis Europœa).—A perfuming otto can be procured by distilling the leaves of this plant: it is principally consumed in the perfuming of soaps. Upon the strength of the name of this odorous plant a very nice handkerchief perfume is made.
Iceland Winter Green.
Esprit de rose, 1 pint.
Essence of lavender, 1/4 "
Extract of neroli, 1/2 "
" vanilla, 1/4 "
" vitivert, 1/4 "
" cassie, 1/2 "
" ambergris, 1/4 "
We have now described all the important odoriferous bodies which are used by the manufacturing perfumer, as derived from the botanic kingdom; it may be understood that where an odoriferous material is unnoticed, it has no qualities peculiar enough to be remarked on, and that the methods adopted for preparing its essence, extract, water, or oil, are analogous to those that have been already noticed, that is, by the processes of maceration, absorption, or enfleurage for flowers, by tincturation for roots, and by distillation for seeds, modified under certain circumstances.
There are, however, three other important derivative odors—ambergris, civet, and musk—which, being from the animal kingdom, are treated separately from plant odors, in order, it is considered, to render the whole matter less confused to manufacturers who may refer to them. Ammonia and acetic acid, holding an indefinite position in the order we have laid down, may also come in here without much criticism, being considered as primitive odors.
On terminating our remarks relating to the simple preparations of the odors of plants, and before we speak of perfumes of an animal origin, or of those compound odors sold as bouquets, nosegays, &c., it may probably be interesting to give a few facts and statistics, showing the consumption, in England, of the several substances previously named.
Quantities of Essential Oils, or Ottos, Paying 1s. per Pound Duty, entered for Home Consumption in the Year 1852.
lbs.
Otto of bergamot, 28,574
" caraway, 3,602
" cassia, 6,163
" cloves, 595
Otto of lavender, 12,776
" lemon, 67,348
" peppermint, 16,059
" roses, 1,268
" spearmint, 163
" thyme, 11,418
" lemon grass, }
" citronella, } 47,380
And other ottos not otherwise described, }
————
Total essential oils or ottos imported in one year, 195,346
at the duty of 1s. per pound, yield a revenue annually of 9,766l. 16s.
It would appear by the above return that our consumption of otto of cloves was exceedingly small; whereas it is probably ten times that amount. The fact is, several of the English wholesale druggists are very large distillers of this otto, leaving little or no room for the sale and importation of foreign distilled otto of cloves. Again, otto of caraway, the English production of that article is quite equal to the foreign; also, otto of lavender, which is drawn in this country probably to the extent of 6000 lbs. annually.
There were also passed through the Custom House for home consumption, in 1852—
Pomatums, procured by enfleurage, maceration, &c., commonly called "French Pomatums,"
average value of 6s.per pound, and paying a duty of 1s.per pound, valued by the importers at £1,306
Perfumery not otherwise described; value £1,920
Number of bottles of eau de Cologne, paying a duty of 1s. each,[D] 19,777
Revenue from eau de Cologne manufactured out of England, say 20,000 flacons at 8d. = 8,000l. annually.
The total revenue derived from various sources, even upon this low scale of duties, from the substances with which "Britannia perfumes her pocket handkerchief," cannot be estimated at less than 40,000l. per annum. This, of course, includes the duty upon the spirits used in the home manufacture of perfumery.
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In the previous articles we have only spoken of the odors of plants; we now enter upon those materials used in perfumery of an animal origin. The first under our notice is—
Ambergris.—This substance is found in the sea, floating near the islands of Sumatra, Molucca, and Madagascar; also on the coasts of America, Brazil, China, Japan, and the Coromandel. The western coast of Ireland is often found to yield large pieces of this substance. The shores of the counties of Sligo, Mayo, Kerry, and the isles of Arran, are the principal places where it has been found. In the "Philosophical Transactions" there is an account of a lump found on the beach of the first-mentioned county, in the year 1691, which weighed 52 oz., and was bought on the spot for 20l., but which afterwards was sold in London for more than 100l. (Philos. Trans. No. 227, p. 509). We are quite within limit in stating that many volumes concerning the origin of ambergris have been written, but the question respecting it is still at issue. It is found in the stomachs of the most voracious fishes, these animals swallowing, at particular times, everything they happen to meet with. It has been particularly found in the intestines of the spermaceti whale, and most commonly in sickly fish, whence it is supposed to be the cause or effect of the disease.
Some authors, and among them Robert Boyle, consider it to be of vegetable production, and analogous to amber; hence its name amber-gris (gray) gray amber. It is not, however, within the province of this work to discuss upon the various theories about its production, which could probably be satisfactorily explained if our modern appliances were brought to bear upon the subject. The field is open to any scientific enthusiast; all recent authors who mention it, merely quoting the facts known more than a century ago.
A modern compiler, speaking of ambergris, says, "It smells like dried cow-dung." Never having smelled this latter substance, we cannot say whether the simile be correct; but we certainly consider that its perfume is most incredibly overrated; nor can we forget that Homberg found that "a vessel in which he had made a long digestion of the human fæces had acquired a very strong and perfect smell of ambergris, insomuch that any one would have thought that a great quantity of essence of ambergris had been made in it. The perfume (odor!) was so strong that the vessel was obliged to be moved out of the laboratory." (Mem. Acad. Paris, 1711.)
Nevertheless, as ambergris is extensively used as a perfume, in deference to those who admire its odor, we presume that it has to many an agreeable smell.
Like bodies of this kind undergoing a slow decomposition and possessing little volatility, it, when mixed with other very fleeting scents, gives permanence to them on the handkerchief, and for this quality the perfumer esteems it much.
Essence of Ambergris
Is only kept for mixing; when retailed it has to be sweetened up to the public nose; it is then called after the Parisian name
Extrait d'Ambre.
Esprit de rose triple, 1/2 pint.
Extract of ambergris, 1 "
Essence of musk, 1/4 "
Extract of vanilla, 2 ounces.
This perfume has such a lasting odor, that a handkerchief being well perfumed with it, will still retain an odor even after it has been washed.
The fact is, that both musk and ambergris contain a substance which clings pertinaciously to woven fabrics, and not being soluble in weak alkaline lyes, is still found upon the material after passing through the lavatory ordeal.
Powdered ambergris is used in the manufacture of cassolettes—little ivory or bone boxes perforated—which are made to contain a paste of strong-smelling substances, to carry in the pocket or reticule; also in the making of peau d'Espagne, or Spanish skin, used for perfuming writing paper and envelopes, and which will be described hereafter.
Civet Cat. Civet Cat.
Civet.—This substance is secreted by the Viverra civetta, or civet cat. It is formed in a large double glandular receptacle between the anus and the pudendum of the creature. Like many other substances of Oriental origin, it was first brought to this country by the Dutch.
When the civet cats are kept in a state of confinement, which at one time was common in Amsterdam, they are placed in strong cages, so constructed as to prevent the animal from turning round and biting the person employed in collecting the secreted substance. This operation is said to be performed twice a week, and is done by scraping out the civet with a small spoon: about a drachm at a time is thus obtained. A good deal of the civet now brought to European markets is from Calicut, capital of the province of Malabar, and from Bassora on the Euphrates.
In its pure state, civet has, to nearly all persons, a most disgusting odor; but when diluted to an infinitesimal portion, its perfume is agreeable. It is difficult to ascertain the reason why the same substance, modified only by the quantity of matter presented to the nose, should produce an opposite effect on the olfactory nerve; but such is the case with nearly all odorous bodies, especially with ottos, which, if smelled at, are far from nice, and in some cases, positively nasty—such as otto of neroli, otto of thyme, otto of patchouly; but if diluted with a thousand times its volume of oil, spirit, &c., then their fragrance is delightful.
Otto of rose to many has a sickly odor, but when eliminated in the homeopathic quantities as it rises from a single rose-bloom, who is it that will not admit that "the rose is sweet?" The odor of civet is best imparted, not by actual contact, but by being placed in the neighborhood of absorbent materials. Thus, when spread upon leather, which, being covered with silk and placed in a writing-desk, perfumes the paper and envelopes delightfully, and so much so, that they retain the odor after passing through the post.
Extract of Civet is prepared by rubbing in a mortar one ounce of civet with an ounce of orris-root powder, or any other similar material that will assist to break up or divide the civet; and then placing the whole into a gallon of rectified spirits; after macerating for a month, it is fit to strain off. It is principally used as a "fixing" ingredient, in mixing essences of delicate odor. The French perfumers use the extract of civet more than English manufacturers, who seem to prefer extract of musk. From a quarter of a pint to half a pint is the utmost that ought to be mixed with a gallon of any other perfume.
Castor is a secretion of the Castor fiber, or beaver, very similar to civet. Though we have often heard of its being used in perfumery, we do not personally know that such is the case.
Musk.—This extraordinary substance, like civet, is an animal secretion; it is contained in excretory follicles about the navel of the male animal. In the perfumery trade these little bags are called "pods," and as imported it is called "pod musk." When the musk is separated from the skin or sack in which it is contained, it is then called "grain musk."
The musk deer (Moschus moschatus) is an inhabitant of the great mountain range which belts the north of India, and branches out into Siberia, Thibet, and China. And it is also found in the Altaic range, near Lake Baikal, and in some other mountain ranges, but always on the borders of the line of perpetual snow. It is from the male animal only that the musk is produced.
Musk Pod, actual size. Musk Pod, actual size.
It formerly was held in high repute as a medicine, and is still so among Eastern nations. The musk from Boutan, Tonquin, and Thibet, is most esteemed, that from Bengal is inferior, and from Russia is of still lower quality. The strength and the quantity produced by a single animal varies with the season of the year and the age of the animal. A single musk pod usually contains from two to three drachms of grain musk. Musk is imported into England from China, in caddies of from 50 to 100 ounces each. When adulterated with the animal's blood, which is often the case, it forms into lumps or clots; it is sometimes also mixed with a dark, friable earth. Those pods in which little pieces of lead are discovered, as a general rule, yield the finest quality of musk; upon this rule, we presume that the best musk is the most worthy of adulteration. Musk is remarkable for the diffusiveness and subtlety of its scent; everything in its vicinity soon becomes affected by it, and long retains its odor, although not in actual contact with it.
It is a fashion of the present day for people to say "that they do not like musk;" but, nevertheless, from great experience in one of the largest manufacturing perfumatories in Europe, we are of opinion that the public taste for musk is as great as any perfumer desires. Those substances containing it always take the preference in ready sale—so long as the vendor takes care to assure his customer "that there is no musk in it."
The Musk Deer. The Musk Deer.
The perfumer uses musk principally in the scenting of soap, sachet powder, and in mixing for liquid perfumery. The just reputation of Paris's original Windsor soap is due, in the main, to its delightful odor. The soap is, doubtless, of the finest quality, but its perfume stamps it among the élite—its fragrance it owes to musk.
The alkaline reaction of soap is favorable to the development of the odoriferous principle of musk. If, however, a strong solution of potass be poured on to grain musk, ammonia is developed instead of the true musk smell.
Extract of Musk.
Grain musk, 2 oz.
Rectified spirit, 1 gallon.
After standing for one month, at a summer temperature, it is fit to draw off. Such an extract is that which is used for mixing in other perfumes. That extract of musk which is prepared for retail sale, is prepared thus:—
Extrait de Musc.
Extract of musk (as above), 1 pint.
" ambergris, 1/2 "
" rose triple, 1/4 "
Mix and filter it; it is then fit for bottling.
This preparation is sweeter than pure extract of musk made according to our first formula, and is also more profitable to the vendor. It will be seen hereafter that the original extract of musk is principally used for a fixing ingredient in other perfumes, to give permanence to a volatile odor; customers requiring, in a general way, that which is incompatible, namely, that a perfume shall be strong to smell, i.e. very volatile, and that it shall remain upon the handkerchief for a long period, ergo, not volatile! Small portions of extract of musk, mixed with esprit de rose, violet, tuberose, and others, do, in a measure, attain this object; that is, after the violet, &c., has evaporated, the handkerchief still retains an odor, which, although not that of the original smell, yet gives satisfaction, because it is pleasant to the nasal organ.
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"Patience and the investment of time and labor for future results are essential factors in every inventor's success."
The field of invention is closed to no one. The studious mechanic may design and improve on the machine he operates. The day laborer, if dissatisfied with his lot, may devise means for lessening the toil of his class, and largely increase his earning capacity. The busy housewife, not content with the drudgery incident to her household cares, may devise a means or article which will lighten her task, and prove a blessing to her sisters. The plodding clerk, without an iota of mechanical knowledge, may perfect a system or an office appliance which will prove of vast benefit to himself and his fellows. The scientist may discover new forces and make new applications of old principles which will make the world marvel,—and so on through the whole category of crafts, occupations and professions.
If one of the old Kings of Israel, centuries ago, voiced the sentiment that there was nothing new under the sun, do we not possess, at the present time, a similar mental attitude, and are we not apt to say with him that there appears to be "nothing new under the sun"? Civilization begets new needs and wants; opportunities for new invention are multiplying at a tremendous rate. In other words, where an inventor, two centuries ago, would have had one hundred chances to "make good," today the chances are multiplied many thousand-fold.
No avenue of business can open up the possibilities of such enormous honors and fabulous money returns as a real invention which is in universal demand. The discoveries of the past form a record which is not only glorious, but points the man of genius of today in an unswerving manner to the possibilities which the future holds, and which are vastly greater than anything which has gone before. Each age finds the people convinced that human ingenuity has reached the summit of achievement, but the future will find forces, mechanical principles and combinations which will excite wonder, and prove to be of incalculable benefit to mankind.
Our old friend Darius Green and his flying machine, that we heard about when we were children, was not as great a fool as he was imputed to be.
Witness at the present time the marvelous results attained by inventors with air ships. We are proud of Wilbur and Orville Wright, who at this writing have just broken all records for Aeroplanes, or "machines heavier than air." It seems that in five or ten years from now the navigation of the air will be a problem perfectly solved.
(Since writing the above, on Thursday, September 17th, Orville Wright, at Fort Myer, Va., met with an accident to his machine, which resulted in the death of Lieutenant Selfridge, of the U.S. Army, and severe injuries to the inventor. The accident is said to have been due to the breaking of one of the propellers.)
When you think that the first locomotives that were invented were considered wonders if they made a speed of eight to ten miles per hour, the chances are that within the next few years we will have airships going through space at incredible rates of speed.
We might also, at this time, refer to the experiments of Count Zeppelin and Santos-Dumont, and the American, Professor Baldwin, in "dirigible balloons." This type of airships will undoubtedly be superseded by the "Aeroplane," or the "Helicopter." The principal inventors in this line are Henry Farman, the French inventor, and Delagrange, the German. Wright Brothers hold the world's record, at this time.
Little did Murdock (who erected, in 1792, while an engineer in Cornwall, England, a little gasometer which produced gas enough to light his house and office) think that in the year 1908 no house would be considered as modern unless it was fully equipped with the gas for lighting and heating which he discovered and brought to practical use. It is also said that "while Murdock resided in Cornwall he made gas from every substance he could think of, and had bladders filled with it, with which, and his little steam carriage running on the road, he used to astonish the people." No one is astonished at "little steam carriages," or, in other words, automobiles, nowadays, one hundred and sixteen years later.
Our grandparents, when they were young people, imagined that they were living in the "Golden Age," and yet we today would consider their lack of what we nowadays consider positive necessities a mighty primitive and inconvenient manner in which to live. When the "wisest man," centuries ago, is chronicled as saying, "There is nothing new under the sun," they lived in tents, rode camels, fought with bows and arrows, sling shots and battering rams! While the Tower of Babel was possibly the first "skyscraper," it did not contain express elevators, hot and cold water, telephones, call boxes, yale locks, granolithic floors, fire escapes, transom lifts, automatic sprinklers, stationary wash stands, water closets, steam or hot water heat, electric and gas lights, push buttons, sash weights, and so on ad infinitum. So you can readily appreciate the marvelous strides the human race is making in the way of material development, and all, or nearly all of which has been due to the fertile brain and nimble wit of the inventors! Who will have the temerity to say when and where this development will stop, when Solomon, centuries ago, thought they had reached the limit?
What will be the next wonderful invention? For instance, the perfected telephote? You, by stepping into a cabinet in Philadelphia, could have your photograph taken and shown in Boston, all by and through an electric wire! The Telephote may transmit light and color as the Telephone does sound; why not a combination of the two, so you can see your friend perfectly when you talk to him on the 'phone?
Our grandparents thought they were as comfortable as possible, and they were, because they did not know any better. Do we know better? One hundred years from now, possibly, our great, great-grandchildren will consider us as having lived in the "stone age." The field of invention has no bars up,—you, all of us, are free to enter.
"The important thing in life is to have a great aim, and to possess the aptitude and perseverance to attain it." LOOKING BACKWARD
"Intelligent study and the application of unremitting effort to a definite purpose are the factors that overcome obstacles."
Here follows a list of the principal inventions chronologically arranged, with the names and nationalities of their inventors.
Year. Name of Invention. Name of Inventor. Nationality.
1620 Spirally grooved rifle barrel Blaew German.
1643 Barometer Torricelli Italian.
1660 Discovery of Electrical Phenomena William Gilbert English.
1663 Steam engine Thos. Newcomen English.
1690 Steam engine with piston Denis Papin French.
1702 First practical application of steam engine Thos. Savory English.
1709 Thermometer Fahrenheit Danzig.
1725 Franklin printing press Benj. Franklin U.S.
1731 Stereotyping William Ged Scotch.
1733 Weaving flying shuttle John Kay English.
1745 Leyden Jar Kleist German.
1752 Lightning conductor Benj. Franklin U.S.
1763 Spinning jenny Jos. Hargreaves English.
1767 Piano England.
1775 Cut nails Jere. Wilkinson U.S.
1777 Circular wood saw Miller English.
1782 Steam engine Jas. Watt Scotch.
1783 Balloon inflated with gas Montgolfier French.
1784 Puddling iron Henry Cort English.
1784 Cast iron plow Jas. Small Scotch.
1786 Steamboat John Fitch U.S.
1787 Steam road wagon, first automobile Oliver Evans U.S.
1788 Threshing machine And. Meikle English.
1791 Wood planer Sam'l Bentham English.
1794 Cotton gin Eli Whitney U.S.
1800 Electric battery Volta Italian.
1801 Fire-proof safe Richard Scott English.
1803 Steel pen Wise English.
1804 Malleable iron castings Lucas English.
1808 Band wood saw Newberry English.
1808 First sea-going steamboat John Stephens U.S.
1810 Revolving cylinder printing press Fred'k Koenig German.
1811 Breech-loading shot gun Thornton & Hall U.S.
1814 First locomotive, U.S Geo. Stephenson English.
1815 Miner safety lamp Sir Humphry Davy English.
1815 Gas meter Clegg English.
1823 Discovery of water gas Ibbetson English.
1825 Portland cement Aspdim English.
1827 Friction matches John Walker U.S.
1828 Hot blast for iron furnaces Neilson Scotch.
1829 Washington printing press Sam'l Rust U.S.
1831 Chloroform Guthrie Scotch.
1832 Electric telegraph Prof. Morse U.S.
1832 Rotary electric motor Sturgeon English.
1832 "Old Iron Sides" locomotive Baldwin U.S.
1833 Steam whistle Geo. Stephenson English.
1834 Reaper Cyrus H. McCormick U.S.
1834 Carbolic acid Runge German.
1835 Horse-shoe machine Burden U.S.
1836 Acetylene gas Davy English.
1836 Revolver Sam'l Colt U.S.
1836 Screw propeller for steam navigation John Erickson U.S.
1837 Galvanizing iron Craufurd English.
1839 Babbitt metal Isaac Babbit U.S.
1839 Vulcanizing rubber Goodyear U.S.
1839 Daguerreotype Louis Daguerre French.
1840 Artesian wells French.
1842 Automatic piano Seytre French.
1844 First telegram sent Prof. Morse U.S.
1845 Double cylinder printing press Richard Hoe U.S.
1845 Pneumatic tire Thompson English.
1846 Sewing machine Elias Howe U.S.
1846 Ether as an anaesthetic Dr. Morton U.S.
1847 Nitroglycerine Sobrero
1847 Improved Hoe printing press Richard Hoe U.S.
1849 Steam pressure gauge Bourdon French.
1849 Corliss engine George H. Corliss U.S.
1850 Mercerized cotton John Mercer English.
1851 Breech-loading rifle Maynard U.S.
1851 Ice-making machine Gorrie U.S.
1852 Telegraph fire alarm Channing & Farmer U.S.
1854 Diamond rock drill Herman U.S.
1854 Revolver Smith & Wesson U.S.
1855 Cocaine Gaedeke German.
1855 Bessemer steel Sir Henry Bessemer English.
1855 Bicycle Michaux French.
1856 Sleeping car Woodruff U.S.
1858 Cable car Gardner U.S.
1858 First Atlantic cable Cyrus Field U.S.
1859 "Great Eastern" launched U.S.
1861 Passenger elevator E. G. Otis U.S.
1861 Barbed wire fence U.S.
1862 Gattling gun Dr. R. J. Gattling U.S.
1865 Antiseptic surgery Sir Jos. Lister English.
1866 Open hearth steel process Siemens-Martin English.
1866 Torpedoes Whitehead U.S.
1868 Typewriting machine C. L. Sholes U.S.
1868 Dynamite Nobel French.
1868 Oleomargarine Mege French.
1868 Sulky plow Slusser U.S.
1869 Spring tooth harrow Garver U.S.
1870 Celluloid Hyatt U.S.
1872 Automatic brake Geo. Westinghouse U.S.
1872 Car coupler E. H. Janney U.S.
1873 Quadruplex telegraph Thos. A. Edison U.S.
1873 Twine binder harvester Gorham U.S.
1873 Self-binding reaper Loche & Wood U.S.
1875 Roller flour mills Wegmann U.S.
1875 Ice-making machine Pictet Switzerland.
1876 Telephone Dr. Alex. Graham Bell U.S.
1877 Phonograph Thos. A. Edison U.S.
1877 Gas engine N. A. Otto U.S.
1877 Telephone transmitter Emile Berliner U.S.
1878 Carbon filament for electric lamps Thos. A. Edison U.S.
1878 Rotary disc cultivator Mallon U.S.
1880 Telephone transmitter Blake U.S.
1880 Hammerless gun Greener U.S.
1880 Typhoid bacillus Robert Koch German.
1880 Pneumonia bacillus Sternberg U.S.
1881 Buttonhole machine Reece U.S.
1882 Tuberculosis bacillus Robert Koch German.
1882 Hydrophobia bacillus Louis Pasteur French.
1884 Cholera bacillus Robert Koch German.
1884 Diphtheria bacillus Loefler German.
1884 Lockjaw bacillus Nicolaier French.
1884 Antipyrene Kuno U.S.
1884 Linotype machine Ottmar Mergenthaler U.S.
1885 First electric street railway in the U.S. Baltimore, Md.
1885 Overhead electric trolley Van Depole U.S.
1886 Graphophone Bell & Tainter U.S.
1887 Cyanide process McArthur & Forest U.S.
1887 Incandescent gas light Carl Welsbach German.
1888 Harveyized armor plate Harvey U.S.
1888 Kodak snapshot camera Eastman & Walker U.S.
1890 Bicycles equipped with pneumatic tires U.S.
1890 Magazine rifle Krag-Jorgensen U.S.
1891 Rotary steam turbine Parsons English.
1893 Kinetoscope Thos. A. Edison U.S.
1893 Carborundum E. G. Acheson U.S.
1893 Calcium carbide electrically produced Thos. L. Wilson U.S.
1895 Liquifying air Carl Linde German.
1895 X-rays Prof. Roentgen German.
1895 Acetylene gas from calcium carbide Thos. L. Wilson U.S.
1896 Wireless telegraphy G. Marconi Italian.
1896 Finsen rays Finsen Danish.
1898 Non-whittling lead pencil F. H. Lippincott U.S.
1900 Mercury vapor electric light Peter Cooper Hewitt U.S.
1901 Airship M. Santos-Dumont French.
1901 Automobile mower Deering Harvester Co. U.S.
From the Encyclopedia Americana.
"There are no elevators in the house of success."—Silent Partner.
Since the above list (taken from the Encyclopedia Americana) was published, there have been a large number of very important inventions brought out.
In 1898 Professor and Madam Curie, of Paris, discovered radium. This remarkable substance is extracted from pitch-blende. It is said to require the reduction of about five thousand tons of the blende to produce one pound of radium. The cost of one pound of radium is variously estimated at from one to three millions of dollars. Radium overturns all the laws of chemistry and physics. Scientists state that if a method of producing it cheaply is ever discovered it will create the greatest revolution in industrial circles. One pound of radium is said to be capable of lighting an enormous area for one billion years without reducing its size or substance by one thousandth part. In other words, it exerts abnormal energy without any appreciable loss.
In 1902, January, Peter Cooper Hewitt, of New York City, announced the invention by him of his Mercury Vapor tube electric light. This light is red-less,—gives off all colors except red. It is in present use in many large establishments. It is practically indestructible, and gives eight times as much light with the same amount of electricity as other lights. Mr. Hewitt is a wealthy man, having inherited money. He comes of the famous New York Hewitt family, whose members have been in the forefront of progress. Mr. Hewitt also invented the "Hewitt Electrical Converter" and the "Hewitt Electrical Interrupter," both inventions of unusual merit.
In 1903, January 18th, Guglielmo Marconi sent a wireless message from Cape Cod, Mass., to Cornwall, England, a distance of 3000 miles. Such a thing, a few years ago, would have been considered absolutely impossible,—unbelievable,—a wild flight of the imagination. Marconi's achievement was accomplished only after the most prolonged experimentation and many disappointments.
In 1908, September 12th, Hudson Maxim filed an application for a patent on an electrical invention for the prolongation of human life.
In 1908, Professor Alexander Graham Bell and Professor Emile Berliner, famous inventors in telephones, are working on new styles of flying machines. With these experts in the field, aerial navigation will, no doubt, shortly be a problem completely solved. In 200 B.C., Hero, of Alexandria, gives an account of an ingenious steam toy.
In 1543, one Blasco de Garay is said to have shown in the harbor of Barcelona, Spain, a vessel of two hundred tons' burden, moved by a paddle wheel driven by steam power.
In 1663 Edward Somerset, the ingenious Marquis of Worcester, contrived the first steam engine.
In 1742, when Benjamin Franklin invented the "Franklin Stove," or as it is sometimes called, the "Pennsylvania Fireplace," he refused to accept a patent on it, saying, "we enjoy great advantages from the inventions of others, so we should be glad of an opportunity to serve others by an invention of ours." An unscrupulous London manufacturer made some light changes in Franklin's stove, we are sorry to state, got a patent on it, and made a fortune from its sale.
An invention of the greatest utility was that brought out in 1788 by William Symington, a young Englishman, for a method of converting the reciprocating motion of an engine into the rotary.
About 1790, Claude Chappe, a Frenchman, while at school at Angers, contrived an apparatus consisting of a post bearing a revolving beam and circulatory arms with which he conveyed signals to three of his brothers who were at another school about half-a-league distant, who read the signals with a telescope. In 1792 the French Legislature voted Chappe 6000 francs ($1200) to enable him to make experiments in Paris. This invention of Chappe was called the "Semaphore Telegraph." Of course, misty or foggy weather would preclude the use of this signalling device. During the war between England and France an amusing incident is related of the use of the "Semaphore Telegraph." The admiral at Plymouth started a "wigwag message" to Whitehall, but was able to forward only part of the message, a thick fog gathering over a portion of the line and interrupting the message. The first part of the message was "Wellington defeated," which caused great distress and anxiety in London. The remainder of the message, "the French at Salamanca," received next day, changed the metropolitan sorrow into gladness.
About the year 1790, Signor Galvani, a professor of anatomy at Bologna, discovered the principle of Galvanic electricity. This was brought about in a very peculiar way. Mrs. Galvani was ill, and her physician prescribed some frog broth. Accordingly, frogs were procured, skinned, washed and laid on a table in the professor's laboratory, which seemed to serve a double purpose of a room for scientific and culinary operations. One of the professor's assistants was engaged in experimenting with a large electric machine which stood upon the same table, and had occasion to draw sparks from the machine. The wife of Galvani, who was present, was surprised to observe that every time he did so the limbs of the frogs moved as if alive. She immediately communicated this strange incident to her husband, who repeated the experiments with, of course, the same result. From this experiment was later developed the so-called zinc and copper wet jars used in the art.
In 1807, Robert Fulton, who was of Irish Descent, made his famous trip in his steamboat, the "Clermont," from New York to Albany, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles, in thirty-two hours, and returned in thirty hours, averaging about five miles per hour. Many stories are told of the consternation the "Clermont" excited in those who saw her for the first time. People who had seen her passing at night described her as "a monster moving on the waters, defying wind and tide, and breathing flames and smoke." The steamboats, at that time, used pine wood for fuel, which sent columns of ignited vapor many feet above the stack, and whenever the fire was stirred enormous showers of sparks would fly off, which in the night produced a very brilliant and beautiful effect. Sailors and seamen on vessels that had never seen a steamboat were scared speechless, and in many cases prostrated themselves, and besought Providence to protect them from the approaches of the horrible monster which they saw.
In 1835 Thomas D. Edmundson, a station agent on the New Castle and Carlisle line, in England, invented the first railroad ticket. The inventor for several years devoted himself entirely to the ticket industry, and by degrees a business arose which became one of the largest in the world.
In 1840 the Government issued the first postage stamps.
George Stephenson died in 1848 at the age of 67, a wealthy man, beloved and honored by all. Statues of him were erected at Liverpool, London and Newcastle. In Rome, Italy, a tablet bears this inscription: "In this Rome, from whence wondrous roads proceed to the empire of the world, the employees of the Roman railways, on the 9th of June, 1881, worthily commemorated the centenary of George Stephenson, who opened still more wondrous roads to the brotherhood of the nations, and whose virtues, inspiring to great works, have left an undying example." During an examination before a Parliamentary Committee George Stephenson was asked, "Suppose, now, one of your engines to be going at the rate of nine or ten miles an hour, and that a cow were to stray upon the line, and get in the way of the engine, would not that be a very awkward circumstance?" Stephenson replied, "Yes, very awkward for the cow." In the course of the same examination he was asked, "But would not men and animals become frightened by the red hot smoke pipe?" to which question Stephenson replied, "But how would they know that it was not painted?" These extracts indicate some of the difficulties inventors had to contend with.
In 1876 two hours after Bell filed his patent for his telephone, Elisha Gray, of Boston, filed an application for a similar device. Bell won, and has been awarded great honors for his invention. It was at first referred to as a "scientific toy." It is now a necessity.
In 1880 Marthelemay Themonier, a Frenchman, was mobbed for building a sewing machine, by laborers who thought his machines contrary to their interests.
"Victory belongs to the most persevering."—Napoleon.
"Success is the child of audacity."—Beaconsfield.
By-Products
Many men mistake obstinacy for perseverance.
Anybody can slide down hill, but it takes good legs and good wind to go up.
A third of our lives is spent in bed—that's why we ought to hustle the other two-thirds.
Waste is criminal. The old proverb says, "Waste not, want not." And it is true.
Anybody may drink at the fountain of knowledge, but you've got to bring your own cup.
The farther you look back into the history of industry and invention, the more you will be impressed with the fact that almost everything has improved as our ability to produce it has increased.
Wireless telegraphy would never have come about had not the other kind preceded, and it is impossible to imagine the phonograph's being ahead of the telephone.
Without illuminating gas and gasoline, Welsbach lights would never have been thought of or possible.
We would have no electric lights without the dynamo, and no dynamo if wire-drawing had not first been perfected.
So it goes—everything is dependent on factors that have preceded and any achievement of today is the result of thousands of years of previous effort and thought.
And the knowledge that we are adding to the world's store today is but the foundation for further advance by men to come.
As long as we don't know everything there will be things we cannot explain and these things will be called chance. Into the life of every human being there enter these inexplicable occurrences.
Silent Partner.
👁 :1
"Lives of great men all remind us,
We can make our lives sublime,
And departing, leave behind us,
Footprints on the sands of time."—Longfellow.
The long list of famous patentees with their inventions which a previous chapter contains is an eloquent testimonial to the fact that fame, fortune and an undying place in history will be given to anyone fortunate enough to conceive and work out a new idea which inures to the benefit of mankind. While these famous inventors have been devising and exploiting inventions of wide scope and large calibre there have been an army of small inventors which should be equally as famous and whose inventions will, probably, on the average, return larger proportionate profits to their owners than have a great many of the prominent ones already listed. The writer has in mind small inventions, such as, for instance, Mrs. Pott's Sad Iron; the De Long Hook and Eye; the Gillette Safety Razor; Enterprise Meat Chopper; Junoform Bust Form; Push-point Pencil; Bromo Seltzer; Morrow Coaster Brake; Brass Tips for Boys' Shoes; Mennen's Talcum Powder; Rubber Tips for Lead Pencils; Bundy Time Clock; President Suspenders; Pianola; Castoria; Angelus; O'Sullivan's Rubber Heel; Macey's Sectional Bookcases; Red Dwarf Ink Pencil; 1900 Washing Machine; Tyden Table Lock, and the thousands of similar small inventions, practically all of which are bringing or have brought enormous fortunes to their owners and developers.
King C. Gillette has become a wealthy man from the royalties and profits on his safety razor. While safety razors had been on the market for years, it took Gillette to bring out a better one, patent it, and make his fortune. The inventor of the President Suspender is said to have collected over fifty thousand dollars last year in royalties on the sales of over two hundred thousand dozen pairs of his suspenders. Miss Wolfe, the inventor of the Junoform Bust Form, it was remarked recently, would attain wealth from her royalties. Mrs. Potts is reputed to have collected over half a million dollars from royalties from the patents on her sad iron.
It is also said that the Selden Gas Engine royalties exceed ten million dollars in amount. It is stated that McCormick, the inventor of a Cream Separator, has an annual income from his patents of over thirty thousand dollars. It is said that the inventor of the new-style "pay-as-you-enter" street car will receive a large royalty on every car of that style used in the United States. They are at present coming into use on the metropolitan street car lines. Everybody is familiar with the enormous fortune made by Pullman with his palace car patents.
NOTES.
It is related that when George Westinghouse called on Commodore Vanderbilt to endeavor to interest him in his air-brake, Vanderbilt said to him: "Do you mean to tell me that you can stop a train of cars by wind?" and when informed that in effect that was what was contemplated, remarked that he had no time for fools. Sometime afterward when, through the support of Andrew Carnegie and several others, a successful test of the brake had been made, Westinghouse had the satisfaction, according to the story, of replying to Vanderbilt's request for a conference, "I have no time to waste on fools."
Ottmar Mergenthaler worked twenty years on the development of his linotype machine, and ten years thereafter in perfecting it. The Mergenthaler Linotype Company has paid out twenty millions of dollars in dividends in fourteen years. The romance of the invention of the linotype brings out in glaring letters PERSISTENCE, as Edward Mott Woolley states in "System," of September, 1908, in an article describing the development of the linotype machine.
It is related of Oscar Hammerstein, the well-known theatrical proprietor, that when he was fifteen years old he landed from a steamer at the Battery in New York, after running away from his German home. He was without money or friends, or any place to go. He got a job in a cigar factory at $2.00 per week. Making cigars by hand seemed to him a poor way of doing it, so he began experimenting on his own account, and four years later he had a machine to do the work. He sold this machine for $6,000 cash, and immediately started on a new one, which in place of selling outright he had manufactured on a royalty basis. It is said that he has received over $250,000 in cash from his royalties. Yet today Hammerstein is not known by his inventions, but by the big theatrical enterprises which have earned or lost other fortunes for him at various times.
In the struggle of Charles Goodyear to manufacture a rubber compound that should fulfil mercantile needs is presented a striking, if rather familiar example of what eternal persistence will finally accomplish, and of how it may be assisted by what we call "luck." When he was twenty-one Goodyear entered a rubber house in Philadelphia and began experimenting in India rubber. By chance one day a little rubber mixed with sulphur fell on a stove, and he at once realized what might be accomplished by what is now known as vulcanization. To carry on his experiments he was required to pawn the school-books of his children to raise money. However, he kept everlastingly at it, and was rewarded with a number of international prizes and decorated by several foreign rulers. His name has gone down to fame as one of the successful inventors of the world. The Goodyear Rubber Company bears his name.
The public today is familiar with the record of Thomas A. Edison, who is considered the greatest inventor the world has ever known. The new book which has recently come out, "The Life of Thomas A. Edison," is well worth purchasing and reading. The public press reported he had won his infringement suits and that the "Moving Picture" trust or combination agreed to pay him royalties running into a sum of seven figures.
George Ade, the "funny man," is independent financially from the royalties paid him on his copyrights.
The story of the De Long Hook and Eye Company is the history of an infinitesimal start with an enormous present size.
Sir Henry Bessemer is said to have been paid $10,000,000 in royalties on his steel process.
Emerson, a Baltimore druggist, made a number of fortunes from his invention of Bromo-Seltzer. Likewise Mennen, of talcum powder fame, whose face and name are known all over the world.
Landis, a Franklin county (Pa.) man, sold his "Straw Stacker" patents, it is said, for $50,000 cash,—practically all profit.
This list, if complete, would fill volumes, but it would be a story with the same ending in each and every case.
A careful study of the reason why all the above patents have proved to be so successful emphasizes the fact that inventors, to succeed, must not lose sight of the Six Cardinal Tests enumerated elsewhere in this volume.
👁 :
Abraham Lincoln elected president of the United States
On this day in 1860, Americans elected as their president Abraham Lincoln, whose victory led to the secession of Southern states and the long and bloody Civil War that lasted until 1865 and ended slavery in the U.S.
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UN condemns apartheid in South Africa
On November 6, 1962, the United Nations General Assembly adopts a resolution condemning South Africa’s racist apartheid policies and calling on all its members to end economic and military relations with the country.
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World War I
On the Western Front, Germany is now retreating as French and American troops cross the Meuse River and move to take Sedan.
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Franklin D. Roosevelt
re-elected as President.
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1429 – Henry VI
was crowned King of England at age eight. He had acceded to the throne at the age of nine months following the death of Charles VI.
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November 6, 2005,
the movie "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire" by J.K. Rowling premiered in London, UK?
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1913-
Mohandas K Gandhi is arrested while leading a march of Indian miners in South Africa.
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1928 -
Jacob Schick obtains a patent for his "shaving implement", the first electric razor.
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1940 -
Franklin Roosevelt is re- elected US president.
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1968 -
Richard Nixon is elected US president, defeating Hubert Humphrey.
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1987 -
United Nations Secretary-General Javier Perez de Cuellar announces significantly broader access by governments and individuals to Nazi war crime archives.
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1994 -
Rescuers struggle to reach cut-off villages and families trapped under the rubble of collapsed houses amid the devastation caused by heavy flooding across southern Europe.
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2000 -
Surgeons in London begin to separate conjoined twin girls in a long and complex operation that will kill one baby to give her sister a chance for a long life.
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2012 -
US President Barack Obama wins election to a second term.
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2014 -
AC/DC fans express dismay that the band will never tour again after drummer Phil Rudd was arrested and charged with attempting to hire a hitman to kill two people.
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2016 -
Indian government declares levels of air pollution in Delhi an emergency situation, closing schools and construction sites.
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1789 - Father John Carroll was appointed as the first Roman Catholic bishop in the United States of America.
1832 - Joseph Smith, III, was born. He was the first president of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. He was also the son of Joseph Smith, the founder of Mormonism.
1851 - Charles Henry Dow was born. He was the founder of Dow Jones & Company.
1860 - Abraham Lincoln was elected to be the sixteenth president of the United States.
1861 - Jefferson Davis was elected as the president of the Confederacy in the U.S.
1861 - The inventor of basketball, James Naismith, was born.
1869 - The first official intercollegiate football game was played in New Brunswick, NJ.
1894 - William C. Hooker received a patent for the mousetrap.
1903 - Philippe Bunau-Varilla, as Panama's ambassador to the United States, signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty. The document granted rights to the United States to build and indefinitely administer the Panama Canal Zone and its defenses.
1913 - Mohandas K. Gandhi was arrested as he led a march of Indian miners in South Africa.
1917 - During World War I, Candian forces take the village of Passchendaele, Belgium, in the Third Battle of Ypres.
1923 - Jacob Schick was granted a patent for the electric shaver.
1935 - Edwin H. Armstrong announced his development of FM broadcasting.
1952 - The first hydrogen bomb was exploded at Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific Ocean.
1961 - In the Saraha Desert of Algeria, a natural gas well ignited when a pipe ruptured. The flames rose between 450 feet and 800 feet. The fire burned until April 28, 1962 when a team led by Red Adair used explosives to deprived the fire of oxygen. (Devil's Cigarette Lighter)
1962 - The U.N. General Assembly adopts a resolution that condemned South Africa's racist apartheid policies. The resolution also called for all member states to terminate military and economic relations with South Africa.
1965 - The Freedom Flights program began which would allow 250,000 Cubans to come to the United States by 1971.
1967 - Phil Donahue began a TV talk show in Dayton, OH. The show was on the air for 29 years.
👁 :
Mahatma Gandhi (born October 2, 1869, Porbandar, India—died January 30, 1948, Delhi) was an Indian lawyer, politician, social activist, and writer who became the leader of the Indian Independence Movement against British rule. As such, he came to be considered the father of his country. Gandhi is internationally esteemed for his doctrine of nonviolent protest (satyagraha) to achieve political and social progress.
In the eyes of millions of his fellow Indians, Gandhi was the Mahatma (“Great Soul”). The unthinking adoration of the huge crowds that gathered to see him all along the route of his tours made them a severe ordeal; he could hardly work during the day or rest at night. “The woes of the Mahatmas,” he wrote, “are known only to the Mahatmas.” His fame spread worldwide during his lifetime and only increased after his death. The name Mahatma Gandhi is now one of the most universally recognized on earth.
Youth
Gandhi was the youngest child of his father’s fourth wife. His father—Karamchand Gandhi, who was the dewan (chief minister) of Porbandar, the capital of a small principality in western India (in what is now Gujarat state) under British suzerainty—did not have much in the way of a formal education. He was, however, an able administrator who knew how to steer his way between the capricious princes, their long-suffering subjects, and the headstrong British political officers in power.
Gandhi’s mother, Putlibai, was completely absorbed in religion, did not care much for finery or jewelry, divided her time between her home and the temple, fasted frequently, and wore herself out in days and nights of nursing whenever there was sickness in the family. Mohandas grew up in a home steeped in Vaishnavism—worship of the Hindu god Vishnu—with a strong tinge of Jainism, a morally rigorous Indian religion whose chief tenets are nonviolence and the belief that everything in the universe is eternal. Thus, he took for granted ahimsa (noninjury to all living beings), vegetarianism, fasting for self-purification, and mutual tolerance between adherents of various creeds and sects.
The educational facilities at Porbandar were rudimentary; in the primary school that Mohandas attended, the children wrote the alphabet in the dust with their fingers. Luckily for him, his father became dewan of Rajkot, another princely state. Though Mohandas occasionally won prizes and scholarships at the local schools, his record was on the whole mediocre. One of the terminal reports rated him as “good at English, fair in Arithmetic and weak in Geography; conduct very good, bad handwriting.” He was married at the age of 13 and thus lost a year at school. A diffident child, he shone neither in the classroom nor on the playing field. He loved to go out on long solitary walks when he was not nursing his by then ailing father (who died soon thereafter) or helping his mother with her household chores.
He had learned, in his words, “to carry out the orders of the elders, not to scan them.” With such extreme passivity, it is not surprising that he should have gone through a phase of adolescent rebellion, marked by secret atheism, petty thefts, furtive smoking, and—most shocking of all for a boy born in a Vaishnava family—meat eating. His adolescence was probably no stormier than that of most children of his age and class. What was extraordinary was the way his youthful transgressions ended.
“Never again” was his promise to himself after each escapade. And he kept his promise. Beneath an unprepossessing exterior, he concealed a burning passion for self-improvement that led him to take even the heroes of Hindu mythology, such as Prahlada and Harishcandra—legendary embodiments of truthfulness and sacrifice—as living models.
In 1887 Mohandas scraped through the matriculation examination of the University of Bombay (now University of Mumbai) and joined Samaldas College in Bhavnagar (Bhaunagar). As he had to suddenly switch from his native language—Gujarati—to English, he found it rather difficult to follow the lectures.
Meanwhile, his family was debating his future. Left to himself, he would have liked to have been a doctor. But, besides the Vaishnava prejudice against vivisection, it was clear that, if he was to keep up the family tradition of holding high office in one of the states in Gujarat, he would have to qualify as a barrister. That meant a visit to England, and Mohandas, who was not too happy at Samaldas College, jumped at the proposal. His youthful imagination conceived England as “a land of philosophers and poets, the very centre of civilization.” But there were several hurdles to be crossed before the visit to England could be realized. His father had left the family little property; moreover, his mother was reluctant to expose her youngest child to unknown temptations and dangers in a distant land. But Mohandas was determined to visit England. One of his brothers raised the necessary money, and his mother’s doubts were allayed when he took a vow that, while away from home, he would not touch wine, women, or meat. Mohandas disregarded the last obstacle—the decree of the leaders of the Modh Bania subcaste (Vaishya caste), to which the Gandhis belonged, who forbade his trip to England as a violation of the Hindu religion—and sailed in September 1888. Ten days after his arrival, he joined the Inner Temple, one of the four London law colleges (The Temple).
Sojourn in England and return to India of Mahatma Gandhi
Gandhi took his studies seriously and tried to brush up on his English and Latin by taking the University of London matriculation examination. But, during the three years he spent in England, his main preoccupation was with personal and moral issues rather than with academic ambitions. The transition from the half-rural atmosphere of Rajkot to the cosmopolitan life of London was not easy for him. As he struggled painfully to adapt himself to Western food, dress, and etiquette, he felt awkward. His vegetarianism became a continual source of embarrassment to him; his friends warned him that it would wreck his studies as well as his health. Fortunately for him he came across a vegetarian restaurant as well as a book providing a reasoned defense of vegetarianism, which henceforth became a matter of conviction for him, not merely a legacy of his Vaishnava background. The missionary zeal he developed for vegetarianism helped to draw the pitifully shy youth out of his shell and gave him a new poise. He became a member of the executive committee of the London Vegetarian Society, attending its conferences and contributing articles to its journal.
In the boardinghouses and vegetarian restaurants of England, Gandhi met not only food faddists but some earnest men and women to whom he owed his introduction to the Bible and, more important, the Bhagavadgita, which he read for the first time in its English translation by Sir Edwin Arnold. The Bhagavadgita (commonly known as the Gita) is part of the great epic the Mahabharata and, in the form of a philosophical poem, is the most-popular expression of Hinduism. The English vegetarians were a motley crowd. They included socialists and humanitarians such as Edward Carpenter, “the British Thoreau”; Fabians such as George Bernard Shaw; and Theosophists such as Annie Besant. Most of them were idealists; quite a few were rebels who rejected the prevailing values of the late-Victorian establishment, denounced the evils of the capitalist and industrial society, preached the cult of the simple life, and stressed the superiority of moral over material values and of cooperation over conflict. Those ideas were to contribute substantially to the shaping of Gandhi’s personality and, eventually, to his politics.
Painful surprises were in store for Gandhi when he returned to India in July 1891. His mother had died in his absence, and he discovered to his dismay that the barrister’s degree was not a guarantee of a lucrative career. The legal profession was already beginning to be overcrowded, and Gandhi was much too diffident to elbow his way into it. In the very first brief he argued in a court in Bombay (now Mumbai), he cut a sorry figure. Turned down even for the part-time job of a teacher in a Bombay high school, he returned to Rajkot to make a modest living by drafting petitions for litigants. Even that employment was closed to him when he incurred the displeasure of a local British officer. It was, therefore, with some relief that in 1893 he accepted the none-too-attractive offer of a year’s contract from an Indian firm in Natal, South Africa.
Years in South Africa
Africa was to present to Gandhi challenges and opportunities that he could hardly have conceived. In the end he would spend more than two decades there, returning to India only briefly in 1896–97. The youngest two of his four children were born there.
Emergence as a political and social activist
Gandhi was quickly exposed to the racial discrimination practiced in South Africa. In a Durban court he was asked by the European magistrate to take off his turban; he refused and left the courtroom. A few days later, while traveling to Pretoria, he was unceremoniously thrown out of a first-class railway compartment and left shivering and brooding at the rail station in Pietermaritzburg. In the further course of that journey, he was beaten up by the white driver of a stagecoach because he would not travel on the footboard to make room for a European passenger, and finally he was barred from hotels reserved “for Europeans only.” Those humiliations were the daily lot of Indian traders and laborers in Natal, who had learned to pocket them with the same resignation with which they pocketed their meager earnings. What was new was not Gandhi’s experience but his reaction. He had so far not been conspicuous for self-assertion or aggressiveness. But something happened to him as he smarted under the insults heaped upon him. In retrospect the journey from Durban to Pretoria struck him as one of the most-creative experiences of his life; it was his moment of truth. Henceforth he would not accept injustice as part of the natural or unnatural order in South Africa; he would defend his dignity as an Indian and as a man.
While in Pretoria, Gandhi studied the conditions in which his fellow South Asians in South Africa lived and tried to educate them on their rights and duties, but he had no intention of staying on in South Africa. Indeed, in June 1894, as his year’s contract drew to a close, he was back in Durban, ready to sail for India. At a farewell party given in his honor, he happened to glance through the Natal Mercury and learned that the Natal Legislative Assembly was considering a bill to deprive Indians of the right to vote. “This is the first nail in our coffin,” Gandhi told his hosts. They professed their inability to oppose the bill, and indeed their ignorance of the politics of the colony, and begged him to take up the fight on their behalf.
Until the age of 18, Gandhi had hardly ever read a newspaper. Neither as a student in England nor as a budding barrister in India had he evinced much interest in politics. Indeed, he was overcome by a terrifying stage fright whenever he stood up to read a speech at a social gathering or to defend a client in court. Nevertheless, in July 1894, when he was barely 25, he blossomed almost overnight into a proficient political campaigner. He drafted petitions to the Natal legislature and the British government and had them signed by hundreds of his compatriots. He could not prevent the passage of the bill but succeeded in drawing the attention of the public and the press in Natal, India, and England to the Natal Indians’ grievances. He was persuaded to settle down in Durban to practice law and to organize the Indian community. In 1894 he founded the Natal Indian Congress, of which he himself became the indefatigable secretary. Through that common political organization, he infused a spirit of solidarity in the heterogeneous Indian community. He flooded the government, the legislature, and the press with closely reasoned statements of Indian grievances. Finally, he exposed to the view of the outside world the skeleton in the imperial cupboard, the discrimination practiced against the Indian subjects of Queen Victoria in one of her own colonies in Africa. It was a measure of his success as a publicist that such important newspapers as The Times of London and The Statesman and Englishman of Calcutta (now Kolkata) editorially commented on the Natal Indians’ grievances.
In 1896 Gandhi went to India to fetch his wife, Kasturba (or Kasturbai), and their two oldest children and to canvass support for the Indians overseas. He met prominent leaders and persuaded them to address public meetings in the country’s principal cities. Unfortunately for him, garbled versions of his activities and utterances reached Natal and inflamed its European population. On landing at Durban in January 1897, he was assaulted and nearly lynched by a white mob. Joseph Chamberlain, the colonial secretary in the British Cabinet, cabled the government of Natal to bring the guilty men to book, but Gandhi refused to prosecute his assailants. It was, he said, a principle with him not to seek redress of a personal wrong in a court of law.
Resistance and results
Gandhi was not the man to nurse a grudge. On the outbreak of the South African (Boer) War in 1899, he argued that the Indians, who claimed the full rights of citizenship in the British crown colony of Natal, were in duty bound to defend it. He raised an ambulance corps of 1,100 volunteers, out of whom 300 were free Indians and the rest indentured laborers. It was a motley crowd: barristers and accountants, artisans and laborers. It was Gandhi’s task to instill in them a spirit of service to those whom they regarded as their oppressors. The editor of the Pretoria News offered an insightful portrait of Gandhi in the battle zone:
The British victory in the war brought little relief to the Indians in South Africa. The new regime in South Africa was to blossom into a partnership, but only between Boers and Britons. Gandhi saw that, with the exception of a few Christian missionaries and youthful idealists, he had been unable to make a perceptible impression upon the South African Europeans. In 1906 the Transvaal government published a particularly humiliating ordinance for the registration of its Indian population. The Indians held a mass protest meeting at Johannesburg in September 1906 and, under Gandhi’s leadership, took a pledge to defy the ordinance if it became law in the teeth of their opposition and to suffer all the penalties resulting from their defiance. Thus was born satyagraha (“devotion to truth”), a new technique for redressing wrongs through inviting, rather than inflicting, suffering, for resisting adversaries without rancor and fighting them without violence.
The struggle in South Africa lasted for more than seven years. It had its ups and downs, but under Gandhi’s leadership, the small Indian minority kept up its resistance against heavy odds. Hundreds of Indians chose to sacrifice their livelihood and liberty rather than submit to laws repugnant to their conscience and self-respect. In the final phase of the movement in 1913, hundreds of Indians, including women, went to jail, and thousands of Indian workers who had struck work in the mines bravely faced imprisonment, flogging, and even shooting. It was a terrible ordeal for the Indians, but it was also the worst possible advertisement for the South African government, which, under pressure from the governments of Britain and India, accepted a compromise negotiated by Gandhi on the one hand and the South African statesman Gen. Jan Christian Smuts on the other.
“The saint has left our shores,” Smuts wrote to a friend on Gandhi’s departure from South Africa for India, in July 1914, “I hope for ever.” A quarter century later, he wrote that it had been his “fate to be the antagonist of a man for whom even then I had the highest respect.” Once, during his not-infrequent stays in jail, Gandhi had prepared a pair of sandals for Smuts, who recalled that there was no hatred and personal ill-feeling between them, and when the fight was over “there was the atmosphere in which a decent peace could be concluded.”
As later events were to show, Gandhi’s work did not provide an enduring solution for the Indian problem in South Africa. What he did to South Africa was indeed less important than what South Africa did to him. It had not treated him kindly, but, by drawing him into the vortex of its racial problem, it had provided him with the ideal setting in which his peculiar talents could unfold themselves.
The religious quest
Gandhi’s religious quest dated back to his childhood, the influence of his mother and of his home life in Porbandar and Rajkot, but it received a great impetus after his arrival in South Africa. His Quaker friends in Pretoria failed to convert him to Christianity, but they quickened his appetite for religious studies. He was fascinated by the writings of Leo Tolstoy on Christianity, read the Qurʾān in translation, and delved into Hindu scriptures and philosophy. The study of comparative religion, talks with scholars, and his own reading of theological works brought him to the conclusion that all religions were true and yet every one of them was imperfect because they were “interpreted with poor intellects, sometimes with poor hearts, and more often misinterpreted.”
Shrimad Rajchandra, a brilliant young Jain philosopher who became Gandhi’s spiritual mentor, convinced him of “the subtlety and profundity” of Hinduism, the religion of his birth. And it was the Bhagavadgita, which Gandhi had first read in London, that became his “spiritual dictionary” and exercised probably the greatest single influence on his life. Two Sanskrit words in the Gita particularly fascinated him. One was aparigraha (“nonpossession”), which implies that people have to jettison the material goods that cramp the life of the spirit and to shake off the bonds of money and property. The other was samabhava (“equability”), which enjoins people to remain unruffled by pain or pleasure, victory or defeat, and to work without hope of success or fear of failure.
Those were not merely counsels of perfection. In the civil case that had taken him to South Africa in 1893, he had persuaded the antagonists to settle their differences out of court. The true function of a lawyer seemed to him “to unite parties riven asunder.” He soon regarded his clients not as purchasers of his services but as friends; they consulted him not only on legal issues but on such matters as the best way of weaning a baby or balancing the family budget. When an associate protested that clients came even on Sundays, Gandhi replied: “A man in distress cannot have Sunday rest.”
Gandhi’s legal earnings reached a peak figure of £5,000 a year, but he had little interest in moneymaking, and his savings were often sunk in his public activities. In Durban and later in Johannesburg, he kept an open table; his house was a virtual hostel for younger colleagues and political coworkers. This was something of an ordeal for his wife, without whose extraordinary patience, endurance, and self-effacement Gandhi could hardly have devoted himself to public causes. As he broke through the conventional bonds of family and property, their life tended to shade into a community life.
Gandhi felt an irresistible attraction to a life of simplicity, manual labor, and austerity. In 1904—after reading John Ruskin’s Unto This Last, a critique of capitalism—he set up a farm at Phoenix near Durban where he and his friends could live by the sweat of their brow. Six years later another colony grew up under Gandhi’s fostering care near Johannesburg; it was named Tolstoy Farm for the Russian writer and moralist, whom Gandhi admired and corresponded with. Those two settlements were the precursors of the more-famous ashrams (religious retreats) in India, at Sabarmati near Ahmedabad (Ahmadabad) and at Sevagram near Wardha.
South Africa had not only prompted Gandhi to evolve a novel technique for political action but also transformed him into a leader of men by freeing him from bonds that make cowards of most men. “Persons in power,” the British Classical scholar Gilbert Murray prophetically wrote about Gandhi in the Hibbert Journal in 1918,
should be very careful how they deal with a man who cares nothing for sensual pleasure, nothing for riches, nothing for comfort or praise, or promotion, but is simply determined to do what he believes to be right. He is a dangerous and uncomfortable enemy, because his body which you can always conquer gives you so little purchase upon his soul.
Return to India
Gandhi decided to leave South Africa in the summer of 1914, just before the outbreak of World War I. He and his family first went to London, where they remained for several months. Finally, they departed England in December, arriving in Bombay in early January 1915.
Emergence as nationalist leader
For the next three years, Gandhi seemed to hover uncertainly on the periphery of Indian politics, declining to join any political agitation, supporting the British war effort, and even recruiting soldiers for the British Indian Army. At the same time, he did not flinch from criticizing the British officials for any acts of high-handedness or from taking up the grievances of the long-suffering peasantry in Bihar and Gujarat. By February 1919, however, the British had insisted on pushing through—in the teeth of fierce Indian opposition—the Rowlatt Acts, which empowered the authorities to imprison without trial those suspected of sedition. A provoked Gandhi finally revealed a sense of estrangement from the British raj and announced a satyagraha struggle. The result was a virtual political earthquake that shook the subcontinent in the spring of 1919. The violent outbreaks that followed—notably the Massacre of Amritsar, which was the killing by British-led soldiers of nearly 400 Indians who were gathered in an open space in Amritsar in the Punjab region (now in Punjab state), and the enactment of martial law—prompted him to stay his hand. However, within a year he was again in a militant mood, having in the meantime been irrevocably alienated by British insensitiveness to Indian feeling on the Punjab tragedy and Muslim resentment on the peace terms offered to Turkey following World War I.
By the autumn of 1920, Gandhi was the dominant figure on the political stage, commanding an influence never before attained by any political leader in India or perhaps in any other country. He refashioned the 35-year-old Indian National Congress (Congress Party) into an effective political instrument of Indian nationalism: from a three-day Christmas-week picnic of the upper middle class in one of the principal cities of India, it became a mass organization with its roots in small towns and villages. Gandhi’s message was simple: it was not British guns but imperfections of Indians themselves that kept their country in bondage. His program, the nonviolent noncooperation movement against the British government, included boycotts not only of British manufactures but of institutions operated or aided by the British in India: legislatures, courts, offices, schools. The campaign electrified the country, broke the spell of fear of foreign rule, and led to the arrests of thousands of satyagrahis, who defied laws and cheerfully lined up for prison. In February 1922 the movement seemed to be on the crest of a rising wave, but, alarmed by a violent outbreak in Chauri Chaura, a remote village in eastern India, Gandhi decided to call off mass civil disobedience. That was a blow to many of his followers, who feared that his self-imposed restraints and scruples would reduce the nationalist struggle to pious futility. Gandhi himself was arrested on March 10, 1922, tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years’ imprisonment. He was released in February 1924, after undergoing surgery for appendicitis. The political landscape had changed in his absence. The Congress Party had split into two factions, one under Chitta Ranjan Das and Motilal Nehru (the father of Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first prime minister) favoring the entry of the party into legislatures and the other under Chakravarti Rajagopalachari and Vallabhbhai Jhaverbhai Patel opposing it. Worst of all, the unity between Hindus and Muslims of the heyday of the noncooperation movement of 1920–22 had dissolved. Gandhi tried to draw the warring communities out of their suspicion and fanaticism by reasoning and persuasion. Finally, after a serious outbreak of communal unrest, he undertook a three-week fast in the autumn of 1924 to arouse the people into following the path of nonviolence. In December 1924 he was named president of the Congress Party, and he served for a year.
*****source:https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahatma-Gandhi/Emergence-as-nationalist-leader
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“Agriculture is that which is so universally understood among them that no person, either man or woman, is ignorant of it; they are instructed in it from their childhood, partly by what they learn at school, and partly by practice, they being led out often into the fields about the town, where they not only see others at work but are likewise exercised in it themselves. Besides agriculture, which is so common to them all, every man has some peculiar trade to which he applies himself; such as the manufacture of wool or flax, masonry, smith’s work, or carpenter’s work; for there is no sort of trade that is in great esteem among them. Throughout the island they wear the same sort of clothes, without any other distinction except what is necessary to distinguish the two sexes and the married and unmarried. The fashion never alters, and as it is neither disagreeable nor uneasy, so it is suited to the climate, and calculated both for their summers and winters. Every family makes their own clothes; but all among them, women as well as men, learn one or other of the trades formerly mentioned. Women, for the most part, deal in wool and flax, which suit best with their weakness, leaving the ruder trades to the men. The same trade generally passes down from father to son, inclinations often following descent: but if any man’s genius lies another way he is, by adoption, translated into a family that deals in the trade to which he is inclined; and when that is to be done, care is taken, not only by his father, but by the magistrate, that he may be put to a discreet and good man: and if, after a person has learned one trade, he desires to acquire another, that is also allowed, and is managed in the same manner as the former. When he has learned both, he follows that which he likes best, unless the public has more occasion for the other.
The chief, and almost the only, business of the Syphogrants is to take care that no man may live idle, but that every one may follow his trade diligently; yet they do not wear themselves out with perpetual toil from morning to night, as if they were beasts of burden, which as it is indeed a heavy slavery, so it is everywhere the common course of life amongst all mechanics except the Utopians: but they, dividing the day and night into twenty-four hours, appoint six of these for work, three of which are before dinner and three after; they then sup, and at eight o’clock, counting from noon, go to bed and sleep eight hours: the rest of their time, besides that taken up in work, eating, and sleeping, is left to every man’s discretion; yet they are not to abuse that interval to luxury and idleness, but must employ it in some proper exercise, according to their various inclinations, which is, for the most part, reading. It is ordinary to have public lectures every morning before daybreak, at which none are obliged to appear but those who are marked out for literature; yet a great many, both men and women, of all ranks, go to hear lectures of one sort or other, according to their inclinations: but if others that are not made for contemplation, choose rather to employ themselves at that time in their trades, as many of them do, they are not hindered, but are rather commended, as men that take care to serve their country. After supper they spend an hour in some diversion, in summer in their gardens, and in winter in the halls where they eat, where they entertain each other either with music or discourse. They do not so much as know dice, or any such foolish and mischievous games. They have, however, two sorts of games not unlike our chess; the one is between several numbers, in which one number, as it were, consumes another; the other resembles a battle between the virtues and the vices, in which the enmity in the vices among themselves, and their agreement against virtue, is not unpleasantly represented; together with the special opposition between the particular virtues and vices; as also the methods by which vice either openly assaults or secretly undermines virtue; and virtue, on the other hand, resists it. But the time appointed for labour is to be narrowly examined, otherwise you may imagine that since there are only six hours appointed for work, they may fall under a scarcity of necessary provisions: but it is so far from being true that this time is not sufficient for supplying them with plenty of all things, either necessary or convenient, that it is rather too much; and this you will easily apprehend if you consider how great a part of all other nations is quite idle. First, women generally do little, who are the half of mankind; and if some few women are diligent, their husbands are idle: then consider the great company of idle priests, and of those that are called religious men; add to these all rich men, chiefly those that have estates in land, who are called noblemen and gentlemen, together with their families, made up of idle persons, that are kept more for show than use; add to these all those strong and lusty beggars that go about pretending some disease in excuse for their begging; and upon the whole account you will find that the number of those by whose labours mankind is supplied is much less than you perhaps imagined: then consider how few of those that work are employed in labours that are of real service, for we, who measure all things by money, give rise to many trades that are both vain and superfluous, and serve only to support riot and luxury: for if those who work were employed only in such things as the conveniences of life require, there would be such an abundance of them that the prices of them would so sink that tradesmen could not be maintained by their gains; if all those who labour about useless things were set to more profitable employments, and if all they that languish out their lives in sloth and idleness (every one of whom consumes as much as any two of the men that are at work) were forced to labour, you may easily imagine that a small proportion of time would serve for doing all that is either necessary, profitable, or pleasant to mankind, especially while pleasure is kept within its due bounds: this appears very plainly in Utopia; for there, in a great city, and in all the territory that lies round it, you can scarce find five hundred, either men or women, by their age and strength capable of labour, that are not engaged in it. Even the Syphogrants, though excused by the law, yet do not excuse themselves, but work, that by their examples they may excite the industry of the rest of the people; the like exemption is allowed to those who, being recommended to the people by the priests, are, by the secret suffrages of the Syphogrants, privileged from labour, that they may apply themselves wholly to study; and if any of these fall short of those hopes that they seemed at first to give, they are obliged to return to work; and sometimes a mechanic that so employs his leisure hours as to make a considerable advancement in learning is eased from being a tradesman and ranked among their learned men. Out of these they choose their ambassadors, their priests, their Tranibors, and the Prince himself, anciently called their Barzenes, but is called of late their Ademus.
“And thus from the great numbers among them that are neither suffered to be idle nor to be employed in any fruitless labour, you may easily make the estimate how much may be done in those few hours in which they are obliged to labour. But, besides all that has been already said, it is to be considered that the needful arts among them are managed with less labour than anywhere else. The building or the repairing of houses among us employ many hands, because often a thriftless heir suffers a house that his father built to fall into decay, so that his successor must, at a great cost, repair that which he might have kept up with a small charge; it frequently happens that the same house which one person built at a vast expense is neglected by another, who thinks he has a more delicate sense of the beauties of architecture, and he, suffering it to fall to ruin, builds another at no less charge. But among the Utopians all things are so regulated that men very seldom build upon a new piece of ground, and are not only very quick in repairing their houses, but show their foresight in preventing their decay, so that their buildings are preserved very long with but very little labour, and thus the builders, to whom that care belongs, are often without employment, except the hewing of timber and the squaring of stones, that the materials may be in readiness for raising a building very suddenly when there is any occasion for it. As to their clothes, observe how little work is spent in them; while they are at labour they are clothed with leather and skins, cut carelessly about them, which will last seven years, and when they appear in public they put on an upper garment which hides the other; and these are all of one colour, and that is the natural colour of the wool. As they need less woollen cloth than is used anywhere else, so that which they make use of is much less costly; they use linen cloth more, but that is prepared with less labour, and they value cloth only by the whiteness of the linen or the cleanness of the wool, without much regard to the fineness of the thread. While in other places four or five upper garments of woollen cloth of different colours, and as many vests of silk, will scarce serve one man, and while those that are nicer think ten too few, every man there is content with one, which very often serves him two years; nor is there anything that can tempt a man to desire more, for if he had them he would neither be the, warmer nor would he make one jot the better appearance for it. And thus, since they are all employed in some useful labour, and since they content themselves with fewer things, it falls out that there is a great abundance of all things among them; so that it frequently happens that, for want of other work, vast numbers are sent out to mend the highways; but when no public undertaking is to be performed, the hours of working are lessened. The magistrates never engage the people in unnecessary labour, since the chief end of the constitution is to regulate labour by the necessities of the public, and to allow the people as much time as is necessary for the improvement of their minds, in which they think the happiness of life consists.
